Thermal conductance is a controlling parameter for heat transfer in microbolometer based infrared imaging systems. The thermal conductance can be measured by monitoring the microbolometer temperature change induced by a known electrical power excitation due to constant voltage or current Joule heating at thermal equilibrium. The temperature change is calculated from the corresponding resistance change by using the conduction mechanism for the microbolometer thermosensitive material. For amorphous semiconductor materials, such as VOx and amorphous silicon, electrical conduction is by Variable Range Hopping (VRH), specifically, Efros-Shklovskii VRH for VOx, and Mott VRH for amorphous silicon. Calculation results are compared to published thermal conductance measurements based on linear approximations of the electrical conductivity temperature dependence.
We report on the effects of thermal annealing on the structural and electrical properties of Vanadium Oxide (V OX) thin films. The annealing temperature and duration as well as the annealing environment were varied to study the effect of such variations on the V OX film resistivity, temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), and electrical low frequency noise (1/f). The experiments were performed with the device under different experimental conditions that include vacuum, oxygen and an inert gas (argon) environment. The device performance was studied for three annealing different temperatures: 100°C, 200°C and 250°C, with annealing times varying from 15 min to 30 min. The results show a consistent increase in resistance, with larger changes following higher temperature anneals. The influence on TCR and noise was more significant for devices annealed at 200°C or above in vacuum or in argon. X-ray diffraction studies (XRD) show that high annealing temperatures mark the onset of micro-crystallinity, with various stable and metastable phases appearing in the amorphous V OX film matrix.
Present microbolometer technology for infrared (IR) sensing and imaging has featured microbridges comprising Si3N4 as well as VOx materials and shown decent performance for IR band detection applications. Nevertheless, further integration of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene can improve the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) to provide even higher dynamic range. For the development of high performance and low noise IR microbolometer detectors with improved TCR, vanadium oxide (VOx) layers were grown on 4-inch SiO2/Si wafers as well as on Si substrates using a DC sputtering process with flow of oxygen and argon gases. From energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) measurements of the sputter-assisted VOx layer growth it was determined that reduced Ar:O flow resulted in lower measured O/V ratios, and therefore more optimal stochiometric properties in the VOx layers. Likewise, analysis of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images demonstrated that DC sputtering power had a substantial impact on the deposition rates and corresponding VOx layer thickness. Using a gas flow ratio of 18.7:1.3, with DC sputtering powers of approximately 300 W, V/O ratios in the 1.8-1.9 target range and 200 nm target thicknesses, respectively, were achievable in VOx layer growth on SiO2/Si substrates. The electrical and performance properties of these optimized VOx layer test structures were then measured and characterized in view of integration with graphene and single wall and multiwall carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for advanced long-wave infrared (LWIR) detection. These demonstrated significant noise reductions and as well as enhancements in the TCR, indicating the potential for improved noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) for high imaging cameras and microbolometer focal plane array (FPA) performance for defense and commercial LWIR sensing applications.
The electrical conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), and electrical low frequency noise in VOx thin films were investigated. The electrical conduction is found to be dominated by Variable Range Hopping (VRH). Phenomenological relations between resistivity, TCR, and low frequency noise were determined for VOx films over a wide range of resistivities. It was observed that both TCR and noise increase monotonically with resistivity, as expected for VRH conduction.
Electrical conduction in materials used in microbolometer technology, such as vanadium oxide (VOx) and amorphous silicon (a-Si), is via carrier hopping between localized states. The hopping conduction parameters determine the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), its temperature dependence, and its relationship to resistivity. The electrical noise has a 1/f component that is also associated to the hopping parameters and thus correlated to TCR. Current research on conduction in cross linked metal nanoparticles organized in an insulating matrix shows that TCR and noise can be controlled independently, potentially allowing for precise tailoring of the detector response for differing applications.
This paper presents a detailed characterization of silicon germanium oxide (SixGeyO1-x-y) thin films with an Oxygen
concentration below 10%. The results demonstrated that a high TCR and a low corresponding resistivity can be achieved
using various compositions, for example, Si0.054Ge0.877O0.069 film has achieved a TCR and a resistivity of -3.516/K, and
629 Ω-cm, respectively. The lowest measured resistivity and the corresponding TCR were 119.6 Ω-cm and -2.202 %/K
respectively, using Si0.136Ge0.838O0.026 for film deposited at room temperature, whereas the highest achieved TCR and the
corresponding resistivity at room temperature were -5.017 %/K, and 39.1×103 Ω-cm, respectively, using
Si0.167Ge0.762O0.071 for films deposited at room temperature. The calculated activation energy (Ea) from the slope of
Arrhenius plots were varied between 0.1232 eV to 0.3788 eV. The X-ray diffraction study demonstrated that the films
are amorphous but did not show any dependence on varying silicon at fixed oxygen concentration. The noise study
demonstrated that these films exhibit relatively high 1/f.
Uncooled amorphous silicon microbolometers have been established as a field-worthy technology for a broad range of
applications where performance and form factor are paramount, such as soldier-borne systems. Recent developments in
both bolometer materials and pixel design at L-3 in the 17μm pixel node have further advanced the state-of-the-art.
Increasing the a-Si material temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) has the impact of improving NETD sensitivity
without increasing thermal time constant (TTC), leading to an improvement in the NETD×TTC product. By tuning the
amorphous silicon thin-film microstructure using hydrogen dilution during deposition, films with high TCR have been
developed. The electrical properties of these films have been shown to be stable even after thermal cycling to
temperatures greater than 300oC enabling wafer-level vacuum packaging currently performed at L-3 to reduce the size
and weight of the vacuum packaged unit. Through appropriate selection of conditions during deposition, amorphous
silicon of ~3.4% TCR has been integrated into the L-3 microbolometer manufacturing flow. By combining pixel design
enhancements with improvements to amorphous silicon thin-film technology, L-3's amorphous silicon microbolometer
technology will continue to provide the performance required to meet the needs to tomorrow's war-fighter.
Recent developments in low-noise, high temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) amorphous silicon and amorphous
silicon germanium material have led to the development of uncooled focal plane arrays, with TCR in the range 3.2%/K
to 3.9%/K, which has been leveraged in the small pixel FPA development at L-3 EOS. In the 17μm pixel technology
node at present, 1024x768, 640×480, and 320x240 FPAs have thus far been developed. All three formats employ waferlevel
vacuum packaging, with the 1024x768 representing the largest format uncooled FPA wafer-level packaged to date.
FPA results from all three formats will be discussed and images will be presented.
An important application of thin-film hydrogenated amorphous silicon (α-Si:H) is infrared detection and imaging with
microbolometer focal plane arrays. Key α-Si:H electrical transport properties that influence detector design and
performance are resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). These properties have been measured over
a wide temperature range for p- and n-type doped α-Si:H thin-films deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition using silane as a precursor gas. Resistivity near and above room temperature follows an Arrhenius thermally
activated dependence. At low temperatures, resistivity transitions from Arrhenius behavior to a variable range hopping mechanism described by the Mott relation and TCR changes at a slower rate than predicted by thermally activated transport alone. Resistivity and TCR are affected by doping and film growth parameters such as dilution of the silane precursor with hydrogen. Resistivity decreases with dopant concentration for both p-type and n-type dopants. Resistivity and TCR increase with hydrogen dilution of silane. TCR and resistivity are interrelated and optimization of thin-film preparation and processing is necessary to obtain high TCR with resistivity values compatible with readout integrated circuit designs. Such optimization of transport properties of α-Si:H films has been applied to the development of high performance ambient operating temperature (uncooled) microbolometer arrays.
Continued reduction of α-Si bolometer pixel size has led to increases in array size as well as improvements in
temporal response for a given level of sensitivity. Programs funded by DARPA and NVESD are developing
advanced 320×240, 640×480 and 1024×768 α-Si bolometer arrays with 17μm pixels, on-chip A/D conversion,
significant improvements in dynamic range, significant reductions in thermal time constant and other specialized
functions. The push to 17μm is motivated not only by system size and weight, but also by improvements in
performance resulting from increased resolution. Smaller pixels permit fabrication of larger arrays without
subverting the field-size constraints of ordinary photolithographic processes. Reducing pixel size also reduces the
effects of stress mismatches. This permits reduction of device thickness, thereby reducing thermal time constant.
Improvements in bolometer material properties have served to improve responsivity while lowering 1/f noise.
Because these arrays substantially reduce sensor size, they are becoming the preferred format for most applications,
particularly for weapon sights and for head-mounted and UAV applications. The larger array sizes are of interest for
pilotage and surveillance.
This paper presents recent developments in next generation microbolometer Focal Plane Array (FPA) technology at L-3 Communications Infrared Products (L-3 CIP). Infrared detector technology at L-3 CIP is based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and amorphous silicon germanium(a-SiGe:H). Large format high performance, fast, and compact IR FPAs are enabled by a
low thermal mass pixel design; favorable material properties; an advanced ROIC design; and wafer level packaging. Currently at L-3 CIP, 17 micron pixel FPA array technology including 320x240,
640 x 480 and 1024 x768 arrays is under development. Applications of these FPAs range from low power microsensors to high resolution near-megapixel imager systems.
A method is described for the direct measurement of the thermal time constant of microbolometer arrays: The emitted radiation from an array due to time varying Joule heating is monitored by a fast photodetector. Applying a bias voltage pulse to the array the thermal time constant is measured from the time dependence of the emission decay at the end of the pulse. In particular, we have used HgCdTe photodetector and digital signal acquisition and analysis to measure the thermal time constant of uncooled a-Si:H microbolometer 120 x 160 arrays with 50 micron pixels. Measured typical thermal time constant values for such arrays are in the range of 8ms to 10ms.
KEYWORDS: Amorphous silicon, Cameras, Infrared cameras, Digital signal processing, Packaging, Microbolometers, Staring arrays, Sensors, Signal processing, Temperature metrology
Low power and low cost are primary requirements for an imaging infrared camera serving law enforcement applications. These include handheld, vehicle and helmet mounted systems for search and surveillance applications. In this paper, a 120 X 160 amorphous silicon (a-Si) microbolometer-based uncooled infrared camera technology offering a low cost, low power solution to infrared surveillance for UGS applications is presented. A 120 X 160 micro infrared camera has been demonstrated which exhibits a noise equivalent temperature difference sensitivity approximately 50 mK using f/1 optics and approximately 80 mK using f/1.2 optics. This sensitivity has been achieved without the use of a thermoelectric cooler for array temperature stabilization thereby significantly reducing the power requirements.
Low power and low cost are primary requirements for an imaging infrared camera used in unattended ground sensor arrays. In this paper, a 120 X 160 amorphous silicon (a- Si) microbolometer-based uncooled infrared camera technology offering a low cost, low power solution to infrared surveillance for UGS applications is presented. A 120 X 160 micron infrared camera (MIRC) has been demonstrated which exhibits an f/1 noise equivalent temperature difference sensitivity approximately 63 mK. This sensitivity has been achieved without the use of a thermoelectric cooler for array temperature stabilization thereby significantly reducing the power requirements. Chopperless camera operation at a 20 Hz frame rate with power consumption of 380 mW has also been demonstrated. The 120 X 160 MIRC operates under digital signal processor (DSP) control. To reduce cost, this DSP-controlled architecture employs commercial off-the-shelf DSP, A/D, memory and voltage regulator chips. The detector chip, employing an integrating amplifier per unit cell ROIC design, is the single custom chip used. The camera also employs low cost f/1 optics, as well as low cost wafer-level vacuum packaging. In this paper, a-Si microbolometer technology for the MIRC will be presented. Also, the key features and performance parameters of the MIRC are presented.
The optical absorption coefficient of CdZnTe in the near and mid infrared spectral regions was measured at room temperature using FTIR transmission spectroscopy for several x-values in Cd1-xZnyTe grown by the horizontal Bridgman technique as well as for CdTe and ZnTe. The compositional dependence of the absorption coefficient near the band edge was used to determine the composition of bulk CdZnTe, an important material parameter in its application as a substrate for HgCdTe epitaxial growth. In the mid IR range, we find that the wavelength dependence of the absorption coefficient could be varied by adjusting the stoichiometry of the material, i.e., by annealing under various Cd overpressures. The shape of the mid IR Fourier transform infrared spectra is related to the type and the concentration of the free carriers as well as the resistivity of the material. For n-type material, the wavelength dependence of the absorption coefficient can be described by free carrier absorption.
Progress has recently been reported on the innovative technique of noncontact mapping of free carrier concentrations in mercury cadmium telluride by using the Faraday effect at discrete wavelengths. We describe here a modification of the basic setup to extend the range of materials covered. An interferometer output was used as a broad band source that covered the spectral region from 7 - 15 micrometers . This permitted measurements of Faraday rotation to be made in HgCdTe material that could not be characterized with available single wavelength sources. Since Faraday rotation over the entire spectral region of interest was made, data could be extracted at optimum wavelengths for a given x value of the material. Data on HgCdTe is presented that show spectral regions where induced spin and where plasma contributions to the rotation predominate. The ability to do wide band Faraday rotation measurements opens up the possibility of extending the technique as a general analytical mapping tool for other classes of materials with potential applications in other fields.
A magneto-optical system is described that allows for spatial mapping of Faraday rotation and infrared transmission of HgCdTe thin films. Composition, thickness, and absorption coefficient of HgCdTe samples are determined from analysis of transmission spectra. Carrier concentration is extracted from analysis of Faraday rotation spectra. The system provides noncontact, nondestructive rapid screening or detailed diagnostics of HgCdTe material. We also show that the results of resonant magneto-optical spectroscopy support the observation of Faraday rotation caused by optical transitions from shallow compensating acceptors as well as near-midgap defect levels in material with similar x-value. We show that these magneto- optical methods are powerful tools for the study of impurity and defect levels in HgCdTe as well as for characterizing and screening HgCdTe.
3 August 2025 | San Diego, California, United States
Infrared Sensors, Devices, and Applications XIV
20 August 2024 | San Diego, California, United States
Infrared Sensors, Devices, and Applications XIII
22 August 2023 | San Diego, California, United States
Course Instructor
SC1326: Microbolometers for Infrared Imaging
Microbolometers are used in Infrared imaging systems in the MWIR to Terahertz spectral range. The goal of this course is to describe in detail the microbolometer device structure, theory of operation, and the associated figures of merit such as the Noise Equivalent Temperature difference (NETD), and thermal time constant. A relevant material parameter is the Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) that affects the device NETD and dynamic range. Another material/device parameter affecting NETD is the electrical noise comprised of frequency dependent and frequency independent (White noise) components. Thermal Resistance (Rth) also affects the microbolometer NETD and thermal time constant. Rth is a measure of the device thermal isolation by mechanical suspension and by encapsulation in high vacuum. Wafer level or single device vacuum packaging is a major backend process in microbolometer array manufacturing.
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