The use of lasers on the battlefield is on the rise due to the recent development of ready-to-use laser dazzlers and laser directed energy weapons. Optical camera systems are particularly vulnerable to damage from laser radiation as the incident light is typically focused onto the sensor. Although there are several methods to protect against specific wavelengths, only a few can provide protection across a broad range of wavelengths. This work describes a technique in which the sensor is positioned behind the focal plane, allowing the use of an optical limiting filter on the freed focal plane. The incident radiation is masked by a coded aperture, and the blurred image is reconstructed using computational imaging. Tests show a significant improvement in resistance to laser damage, as well as satisfactory image reconstruction.
Laser safety with regard to the human eye is a well-known topic. Everybody working with laser sources has to follow the long-established occupational safety rules to prevent people from eye damage by accidental irradiation. These rules comprise, for example, the use of laser safety eyewear and the calculation of the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) and its corresponding hazard distance, the nominal ocular hazard distance. At exposure levels below the MPE, glare effects may occur if the laser wavelengths are in the visible spectral range. The physical effects of laser dazzling on the human eye are described by a quite new concept, which defines the maximum dazzle exposure (MDE) and the corresponding nominal ocular dazzle distance (NODD). Triggered by the MDE/NODD concept, we investigated whether similar laser safety calculations could be performed for electro-optical imaging systems. In this publication, we will review our approach for laser safety calculations for such systems. We have succeeded in finding closed-form equations, allowing calculations of exposure limits to prevent electro-optical imaging systems from damage and/or dazzle. Furthermore, we found some interesting effects related to the corresponding hazard distances, which are also discussed.
Laser safety with regard to the human eye is a well-known topic. Everybody working with laser sources has to follow the long-established occupational safety rules to prevent people from eye damage by accidental irradiation. These rules comprise, for example, the use of laser safety eye-wear and the calculation of the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) and its corresponding hazard distance, the Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD). At exposure levels below the MPE, glare effects may occur if the laser wavelengths are in the visible spectral range. The physical effects of laser dazzling on the human eye are described by a quite new concept, which defines the Maximum Dazzle Exposure (MDE) and the corresponding Nominal Ocular Dazzle Distance (NODD). Triggered by the MDE/NODD concept, we investigated whether similar laser safety calculations could be performed for electro-optical imaging systems. In this publication, we will review our approach for laser safety calculations for such systems. We have succeeded to find closed-form equations allowing calculations of exposure limits to prevent electrooptical imaging systems from damage and/or dazzle. Furthermore, we found some interesting effects related to the corresponding hazard distances, which are also discussed.
Dazzling of the human eye by lasers or bright light sources is a commonly used non-lethal measure to warn individuals or to reduce the human performance of an opponent in security or military scenarios. To study the deterioration of the human performance, e.g. in terms of the ability to drive a vehicle or with respect to task performance, like shooting precision, dazzle experiments on subjects are essential. Experiments with laser dazzlers require complex and careful preparation to ensure laser safety. Moreover, in many cases an approval from an ethics committee is required. In this publication, we propose an approach for the assessment of human performance degradation with regard to laser dazzle based on augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR). Instead of using a laser dazzler, the visual incapacitation is implemented by a virtual dazzle spot simulated on an AR/VR device. The achievable level of obscuration and veiling caused by the virtual dazzle spot is investigated experimentally and, in a further step, compared to experiments performed with real lasers as described in the literature.
In October 2018, NATO SET-249 performed a common trial at WTD 52, Oberjettenberg, Germany, to study laser dazzle effects in an airborne scenario. The facility is equipped with a cable car and is ideal for slanted path experiments from the base station to the cable car where the sensors were mounted. NATO SET-249’s background is laser threat evaluation and the evaluation of the impact of laser eye dazzle on the visual performance of humans. This work gives an overview on the various measurements performed here: 1. Assessment of dazzle effects originating from light scattering at an aircraft canopy by comparing the images of two cameras: one outside and one inside the canopy. The general findings showed that the canopy, which had been used previously on an aircraft, substantially affected the dazzle pattern in the camera within the canopy as compared to the camera outside. 2. Sensor dazzling: Laser dazzling of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) cameras in the visible domain and, in addition, laser dazzling of a camera equipped with a fisheye lens, which is commonly present in micro-unmanned aerial vehicles, is demonstrated. The dazzled area in the camera field of view (FoV) grows with increasing laser irradiance, and dazzling is effective at irradiance levels around a few μW/cm². 3. An overview on realistic handheld laser engagement scenarios to test the capabilities of a DSTL-developed Laser Event Recorder (LER) is provided. This technology is able to detect continuous wave (CW) and pulsed lasers, and extract their wavelengths, irradiances, Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) and directionality. Applications for this LER include collecting information on aircraft laser exposure events, giving information to assess if engagements are eye safe. 4. Measurements performed on various Fraunhofer IOSB developed sensor systems hardened against laser dazzle: The hardening measure of these systems is based either on the use of spatial light modulators or on the implementation of the principle of complementary wavelength bands. The field trial offered the possibility to generate data of the hardened systems under real life conditions.
Based on our previous work1, we further investigate the laser-induced damage effects on digital micromirror devices (DMD) in comparison to different electro-optical imaging sensors such as complementary metal-oxide-semiconductors (CMOS) and charge-coupled devices (CCD). In our earlier work, we reported on damage thresholds obtained by pulsed laser radiation of nanosecond pulse width and by continuous-wave laser radiation utilizing irradiation times ranging from 250 milliseconds up to 10 seconds. The main objective of our current work is to fill the gap regarding the time scale of picosecond pulses. In the course of this research, we enhanced the experimental setup and we explicitly describe the achieved improvements in this work. Furthermore, we characterize the damage caused by laser pulse energies exceeding the laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT).
We present an optical concept for imaging sensor systems, designed to considerably reduce the sensor’s image information loss in cases of laser dazzle, based on the principle of complementary bands. For this purpose, the sensor system’s spectral range is split in several (at least two) spectral channels, where each channel possesses its own imaging sensor. This long-known principle is applied, for example, in high-quality three-sensor color cameras. However, in such camera systems, the spectral separation between the different spectral bands is too poor to prevent complete sensor saturation when illuminated with intense laser radiation. We increased the channel separation by orders of magnitude by implementing advanced optical elements. Thus, monochromatic radiation of a dazzle laser mainly influences the dedicated transmitting spectral channel. The other (out-of-band) spectral channels are not or—depending on the laser power—only hardly affected. We present our system design as well as a performance evaluation of the sensor concerning laser dazzle.
We present an optical concept for imaging sensor systems, designed to reduce considerably the sensor’s image information loss in cases of laser dazzle, based on the principle of complementary bands. For this purpose, the sensor system’s spectral range is split in several (at least two) spectral channels, where each channel possesses its own imaging sensor. This long-known principle is applied, for example, in high-quality 3-sensor colour cameras. However, in such camera systems, the spectral separation between the different spectral bands is far too poor to prevent complete sensor saturation when illuminated with intense laser radiation. We increased the channel separation by orders of magnitude by implementing advanced optical elements. Thus, monochromatic radiation of a dazzle laser mainly impacts the dedicated transmitting spectral channel. The other (out-ofband) spectral channels are not or – depending on the laser power – only hardly affected. In this paper, we present our system design as well as a performance evaluation of the sensor concerning laser dazzle.
Fraunhofer IOSB (Ettlingen, Germany) developed and built a measurement system to verify laser threat detection. The system has been given the name MARLA (Maritime Lasermessanlage), eng.: maritime laser measurement system. It is an integral part of an exercise and test range for electronic warfare of the German Navy at Wehrtechnische Dienststelle für Schiffe und Marinewaffen, Maritime Technologie und Forschung WTD 71, Eckernförde, Germany.
The system provides realistic simulations of various laser-based threats to ships on sea and allows studies of the efficacy of onboard laser warning receivers. MARLA assists laser counter-measures and enables to include environmental studies (atmospheric transmission, water reflections etc.). Redundant system design ensures laser safety even in public areas.
The core of MARLA is a modular laser unit (LU) consisting of five laser modules (LM) and the dedicated laser controllers (LC). The laser modules are mounted on a pan-tilt positioner. MARLA covers the most common laser threats like laser target designator (LTD), laser range finder (LRF), laser beam rider (LBR) and laser dazzler (LD). The individual laser modules are based on commercially available laser sources fitted with multi-stage attenuators to set the laser irradiance within a range of seven orders of magnitude without losing beam quality. By means of a photo detector, the energy of the emitted laser pulses is recorded. An integrated beam shaper enables to vary the beam divergence.
The further crucial parts of MARLA are the control and data acquisition system with operating and visualization software and a general laser safety monitoring system. All the subsystems are integrated into a climate-controlled movable 20' sea container. Use of a stand-alone verification system provides reference data to verify the actual on-site irradiation at the test target.
Based on previous work on thermal imager performance analysis at Fraunhofer IOSB using specific scenes and patterns, we present our advances in setting up a testbed for thermal imager characterization with a MIRAGE™ XL infrared scene projector.
In the first part, we outline the experimental setup of our testbed. It allows for mimicking infrared imaging of real scenes in a controlled laboratory environment. We describe the process of dynamic infrared scene generation as well as the physical limitations of our scene projection setup.
A second part discusses ongoing and future applications. This testbed extends our standard lab measurements for thermal imagers by a image based performance analysis method. Scene based methods are necessary to investigate and assess advanced digital signal processing (ADSP) algorithms which are becoming an integral part of thermal imagers. We use this testbed to look into inferences of unknown proprietary ADSP algorithms by choosing suitable test scenes.
Furthermore, we investigate the influence of dazzling on thermal imagers by coupling infrared laser radiation into the projected scene. The studies allow to evaluate the potential and hazards of infrared dazzling and to describe correlated effects. In a future step, we want to transfer our knowledge of VIS/NIR laser protection into the infrared regime.
The continuous development of laser systems toward more compact and efficient devices constitutes an increasing threat to electro-optical imaging sensors, such as complementary metal–oxide–semiconductors (CMOS) and charge-coupled devices. These types of electronic sensors are used in day-to-day life but also in military or civil security applications. In camera systems dedicated to specific tasks, micro-optoelectromechanical systems, such as a digital micromirror device (DMD), are part of the optical setup. In such systems, the DMD can be located at an intermediate focal plane of the optics and it is also susceptible to laser damage. The goal of our work is to enhance the knowledge of damaging effects on such devices exposed to laser light. The experimental setup for the investigation of laser-induced damage is described in detail. As laser sources, both pulsed lasers and continuous-wave (CW)-lasers are used. The laser-induced damage threshold is determined by the single-shot method by increasing the pulse energy from pulse to pulse or in the case of CW-lasers, by increasing the laser power. Furthermore, we investigate the morphology of laser-induced damage patterns and the dependence of the number of destructive device elements on the laser pulse energy or laser power. In addition to the destruction of single pixels, we observe aftereffects, such as persistent dead columns or rows of pixels in the sensor image.
The continuous development of laser systems towards more compact and efficient devices constitutes an increasing threat to electro-optical imaging sensors such as complementary metal-oxide-semiconductors (CMOS) and charge-coupled devices (CCD). These types of electronic sensors are used in day-to-day life but also in military or civil security applications. In camera systems dedicated to specific tasks, also micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) like a digital micromirror device (DMD) are part of the optical setup. In such systems, the DMD can be located at an intermediate focal plane of the optics and it is also susceptible to laser damage. The goal of our work is to enhance the knowledge of damaging effects on such devices exposed to laser light.
The experimental setup for the investigation of laser-induced damage is described in detail. As laser sources both pulsed lasers and continuous-wave (CW) lasers are used. The laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT) is determined by the single-shot method by increasing the pulse energy from pulse to pulse or in the case of CW-lasers, by increasing the laser power.
Furthermore, we investigate the morphology of laser-induced damage patterns and the dependence of the number of destructed device elements on the laser pulse energy or laser power. In addition to the destruction of single pixels, we observe aftereffects like persisting dead columns or rows of pixels in the sensor image.
In this paper, we propose ways to study the optical limiting behavior of dissolved nanoparticles. We want to present two
different approaches. First, we identify the key properties responsible for the critical fluence threshold using a principal
component analysis. For metallic nanoparticles, we found that the real part of the complex dielectric function must have
a negative value as low as possible, while the imaginary part must be close to zero. Additionally, the solvent should have
a low refractive index as well as a low absorption.
Furthermore, nonlinear scattering seems to be an important limiting mechanism for nanoparticle limiters. Here, we
present a thermal finite element model to predict the temporal evolution of the temperature profile in the nanoparticles
and their vicinity. The temperature profile leads to vapor bubbles around the nanoparticles and Mie theory is used to
calculate the induced scattering. We demonstrate the functionality of the model by simulating an Au-nanoparticle in an
ethanol solution.
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