Astronomical adaptive optics (AO) is a critical approach to enable ground-based diffraction-limited imaging and high contrast science, with the potential to enable habitable exoplanet imaging on future extremely large telescopes. However, AO systems must improve significantly to enable habitable exoplanet imaging. Time lag between the end of an exposure and end of deformable mirror commands being applied in an AO loop is now the dominant error term in many extreme AO systems (e.g., Poyneer et al. 2016), and within that lag component detector read time is becoming non-negligible (e.g., Cetre et al. 2018). This term will decrease as faster detector readout capabilities are developed by vendors. In complement, we have developed a modified Shack Hartmann Wavefront Sensor (SHWFS) to address this problem called the Focal-plane Actualized Shifted Technique Realized for a SHWFS (fastrSHWFS). The novelty of this design is to replace the usual lenslet array with a bespoke pupil-plane phase mask that redistributes the spot pattern on the detector into a rectangular array with a custom aspect ratio (in an extreme case, if the detector size can accommodate it, the array can be a single line). We present the fastrSHWFS concept and preliminary laboratory tests. For some detectors and AO systems, the fastrSHWFS technique can decrease the read time per frame compared to a regular SHWFS by up to 30x, supporting the goal of reduced AO lag needed to eventually enable habitable exoplanet imaging.
Focal plane wavefront sensing techniques are generally limited to using imaging systems that have below 1% spectral bandwidths, due to the radial “smearing” of speckles from chromatic diffraction that causes optical image magnification over larger spectral bandwidths. Wynne (1979) designed a pair of triplet lenses to optically minimize this chromatic magnification and increase the spectral bandwidth. Such a Wynne corrector could enable focal plane wavefront sensing at up to 50% spectral bandwidths and as a result open enable > 50x higher-speed focal plane wavefront sensing. We present results of the design and laboratory testing of a Wynne corrector prototype, including a detailed tolerancing analysis considering manufactural wavelength ranges and alignment tolerances. These tests show promising results that this technology can be deployed to current and future high speed focal plane wavefront sensing instruments to enable significant performance enhancements. This document number is LLNL-ABS-857246.
This paper presents NPS Sparse Aperture Testbed development to demonstrate sparse aperture concept. The testbed has a sparse aperture array consisting of three 2-inch diameter F/20 spherical mirrors. Each mirror is connected to a separate 6 axis ThorLabs stage to simulate motion in satellite formation. The beam combining platform employs three 1-inch diameter flat mirrors mounted on the correcting PI tip/tilt/piston actuated stages to provide coherent beam combining capabilities. For metrology, the system uses Zygo 9 single-axis displacement measuring interferometers. Transformation matrix between the aperture motion measured by the metrology and required motion by the correcting piston and tip/tilt stages was determined. The mirrors were moved continuously representing satellite formation errors and the motion was measured by laser metrology and using transformation matrix, the correcting stages were commanded, resulting in coherent combination of images from three apertures.
The Adaptive Optics Center of Excellence for National Security at the Naval Postgraduate School has implemented a technology testing platform and array of facilities for next-generation space-based telescopes and imaging system development. The Segmented Mirror Telescope is a 3-meter, 6 segment telescope with actuators on its mirrors for system optical correction. Currently, investigation is being conducted in the use of lightweight carbon fiber reinforced polymer structures for large monolithic optics. Advantages of this material include lower manufacturing costs, very low weight, and high durability and survivability compared to its glass counterparts. Design and testing has begun on a 1-meter, optical quality CFRP parabolic mirror for the purpose of injecting collimated laser light through the SMT primary and secondary mirrors as well as the following aft optics that include wavefront sensors and deformable mirrors. This paper will present the design, testing, and usage of this CFRP parabolic mirror and the current path moving forward with this ever-evolving technology.
Hyperspectral infrared imagers are of great interest in applications requiring remote identification of complex chemical agents. The combination of mercury cadmium telluride detectors and Fabry–Perot filters (FPFs) is highly desirable for hyperspectral detection over a broad wavelength range. The geometries of distributed Bragg reflector (DBR)-based tunable FPFs are modeled to achieve a desired spectral resolution and wavelength range. Additionally, acceptable fabrication tolerances are determined by modeling the spectral performance of the FPFs as a function of DBR surface roughness and membrane curvature. These fabrication nonidealities are then mitigated by developing an optimized DBR process flow yielding high-performance FPF cavities suitable for integration with hyperspectral imagers.
Monolithic fabrication of continuous facesheet high-aspect ratio gold microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) deformable mirrors (DMs) onto a thermally matched ceramic–glass substrate (WMS-15) has been performed. The monolithic process allows thick layer deposition (tens of microns) of sacrificial and structural materials thus allowing high-stroke actuation to be achieved. The fabrication process does not require wafer bonding to achieve high aspect ratio three-dimensional structures. A gold continuous facesheet mirror with 3.4 nm surface roughness has been deposited on a 16×16 array of X-beam actuators on a 1-mm pitch. A stroke of 6.4 μm was obtained when poking two neighboring actuators. Initial electrostatic actuation displacement results for a high-aspect ratio gold MEMS DM with a continuous facesheet will be discussed.
Recently, there has been a growing interest in deep tissue imaging for the study of neurons. Unfortunately, because of the
inhomogeneous refractive index of the tissue, the aberrations degrade the resolution and brightness of the final image.
In this paper, we describe an adaptive optics confocal fluorescence microscope (AOCFM) which can correct aberrations
based on direct wavefront measurements using a point source reference beacon and a Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor
(SHWS). Mouse brain tissues with different thicknesses are tested. After correction, both the signal intensity and contrast
of the image are improved.
The Mid-wave infrared (MWIR) spectrum has applications to many fields, from night vision to chemical and biological
sensors. Existing broadband detector technology based on HgCdTe allows for high sensitivity and wide range, but lacks
the spectral decomposition necessary for many applications. Combining this detector technology with a tunable optical
filter has been sought after, but few commercial realizations have been developed. MEMS-based optical filters have
been identified as promising for their small size, light-weight, scalability and robustness of operation. In particular,
Fabry-Perot interferometers with dielectric Bragg stacks used as reflective surfaces have been investigated. The
integration of a detector and a filter in a device that would be compact, light-weight, inexpensive to produce and scaled
for the entire range of applications could provide spectrally resolved detection in the MWIR for multiple instruments.
We present a fabrication method for the optical components of such a filter. The emphasis was placed on wafer-scale
fabrication with IC-compatible methods. Single, double and triple Bragg stacks composed of germanium and silicon
oxide quarter-wavelength layers were designed for MWIR devices centered around 4 microns and have been fabricated
on Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) wafers, with and without anti-reflective half-wavelength silicon nitride layers. Optical
testing in the MWIR and comparison of these measurements to theory and simulations are presented. The effect of film
stress induced by deposition of these dielectric layers on the mechanical performance of the device is investigated. An
optimal SOI substrate for the mechanical performance is determined. The fabrication flow for the optical MEMS
component is also determined. Part of this work investigates device geometry and fabrication methods for scalable
integration with HgCdTe detector and IC circuitry.
Adaptive optics for the next generation of extremely large telescopes (30 - 50 meter diameter primary mirrors) requires
high-stroke (10 microns), high-order (100x100) deformable mirrors at lower-cost than current technology. Lowering the
cost while improving the performance of deformable mirrors is possible using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) technology. In this paper the fabrication and testing of an array of high-stroke gold MEMS X-beam actuators
attached to a continuous gold facesheet will be described. Both the actuator and the facesheet were fabricated
monolithically in gold plated onto a thermally matched ceramic-glass substrate (WMS-15) using a high-aspect ratio
fabrication process.
Continuous facesheets that are deformed due to stress gradients have been annealed at high temperature and for an
extended amount of time. The facesheet was flattened to the point where features such as etch holes and support post
topography were easily distinguishable. Initial root-mean-square (RMS) topography at center of facesheet attached to a
16x16 X-beam actuator array with 1mm pitch was measured to be ~13.8μm. After annealing, the surface topography
was measured to be ~1.0μm.
Adaptive optics (AO) applications in astronomy and vision science require deformable mirrors (DMs) with high-stroke, high-order packing density at a lower cost than the currently available technology. The required AO specifications are achievable with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices fabricated with LIGA (lithographie galvanofomung abformung) high-aspect-ratio processing techniques. Different actuator designs and a bonded faceplate fabricated in a LIGA process, enabling multilayer fabrication of MEMS devices, are investigated. Various types of high-stroke gold actuators for AO consisting of folded springs with rectangular and circular membranes as well as x-beam actuators supported diagonally by fixed-guided springs are designed, simulated, and fabricated individually and as part of a continuous-face-sheet DM system. The actuators and DM displacement versus voltage are measured with an interferometer and the corresponding results are compared to finite element analysis simulations. Simulations and interferometer scans show the ability of the actuators to achieve displacements of greater than 1/3 of the initial gap. A stroke of ~9.4 µm is achieved, thus showing that this fabrication process holds promise in the manufacture of future MEMS DMs for the next generation of extremely large telescopes.
In the past decades, there have been several attempts to create a tunable optical detector with operation in the infrared.
The drive for creating such a filter is its wide range of applications, from passive night vision to biological and chemical
sensors. Such a device would combine a tunable optical filter with a wide-range detector. In this work, we propose
using a Fabry-Perot interferometer centered in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) spectrum with an HgCdTe detector.
Using a MEMS-based interferometer with an integrated Bragg stack will allow in-plane operation over a wide range.
Because such devices have a tendency to warp, creating less-than-perfect optical surfaces, the Fabry-Perot interferometer
is prototyped using the SOI-MUMPS process to ensure desirable operation. The mechanical design is aimed at optimal
optical flatness of the moving membranes and a low operating voltage. The prototype is tested for these requirements.
An HgCdTe detector provides greater performance than a pyroelectic detector used in some previous work, allowing for
lower noise, greater detection speed and higher sensitivity. Both a custom HgCdTe detector and commercially available
pyroelectric detector are tested with commercial optical filter. In previous work, monolithic integration of HgCdTe
detectors with optical filters proved to be problematic. Part of this work investigates the best approach to combining
these two components, either monolithically in HgCdTe or using a hybrid packaging approach where a silicon MEMS
Fabry-Perot filter is bonded at low temperature to a HgCdTe detector.
The fabrication and initial performance results of high-aspect ratio 3-dimensional Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) Deformable Mirrors (DM) for Adaptive Optics (AO) will be discussed.
The DM systems were fabricated out of gold, and consist of actuators bonded to a continuous face
sheet, with different boundary conditions. DM mirror displacements vs. voltage have been measured
with a white light interferometer and the corresponding results compared to Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) simulations. Interferometer scans of a DM have shown that ~9.4um of stroke can be achieved
with low voltage, thus showing that this fabrication process holds promise in the manufacturing of
future MEMS DM's for the next generation of extremely large telescopes.
Adaptive Optics (AO) improves the quality of astronomical imaging systems by using real time measurement of the
turbulent medium in the optical path. The measurements are then taken and applied to a deformable mirror (DM) that is
in the conjugate position of the aberrations in the optical path. The quality of the reconstructed wavefront directly affects
the images obtained. One of the limiting factors in current DM technology is the amount of stroke available to correct
the wavefront distortions which can be as high as 20 microns of optical path difference. We have developed a simulation
analysis using Galerkin's method to solve the nonlinear plate equation. The analysis uses a set of orthogonal equations
that satisfied the boundary condition to solve for the linear deformation on the mirror surface. This deformation is used
to iteratively converge to the final solution by applying the nonlinear plate equation and the nonlinear actuator forces.
This simulation was used to design a microelectromechanical DM with 10 μm of stroke.
Various types of large stroke actuators for Adaptive Optics (AO) were simulated individually and as part of a mirror
system consisting of actuators bonded to face plates with different boundary conditions. The actuators and faceplate
were fabricated using a high aspect ratio process that enables the fabrication of 3-dimensional Micro-Electro-Mechanical
System (MEMS) devices. This paper will review simulation results along with measurements of the displacement of the
actuators utilizing a white-light interferometer. Both simulations and interferometer scans have shown the ability of the
actuators to achieve displacements of 1/3 of the initial gap between the spring layer and the counter electrode.
Adaptive optics (AO) applications in astronomy and vision science require deformable mirrors with larger stroke, higher
packing density and at lower cost than currently available technology. The use of high-aspect ratio Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems (MEMS) processing techniques to fabricate large-stroke actuators that can meet stroke, packing
density and cost specifications for AO applications have been explored. Different actuator designs, materials and postprocessing
procedures fabricated in two different high-aspect ratio processes have been investigated. These
manufacturing processes allow high-precision multilayer fabrication, and both parallel plate and comb drive actuator
deformable mirror designs have been created. Multilayer fabrication has reduced pull-in voltage requirements for large
stroke comb-drive actuators. The design, modeling and simulation of these actuators are compared to experimental
measurements of their pull-voltages, which characterizes their stiffness and maximum stroke.
In this paper we review the use of a 3-dimensional MEMS fabrication process to prototype long stroke (>10 μm) actuators as are required for use in future adaptive optics systems in astronomy and vision science. The Electrochemical Fabrication (EFABTM) process that was used creates metal micro-structures by electroplating multiple, independently patterned layers. The process has the design freedom of rapid prototyping where multiple patterned layers are stacked to build structures with virtually any desired geometry, but in contrast has much greater precision, the capability for batch fabrication and provides parts in engineering materials such as nickel. The design freedom enabled by this process has been used to make both parallel plate and comb drive actuator deformable mirror designs that can have large vertical heights of up to 1 mm. As the thickness of the sacrificial layers used to release the actuator is specified by the designer, rather than by constraints of the fabrication process, the design of large-stroke actuators is straightforward and does not require any new process development. Since the number of material layers in the EFABTM process is also specified by the designer it has been possible to gang multiple parallel plate actuators together to decrease the voltage required for long-stroke actuators.
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