Knowledge of the spectral reflectance signature of human skin over a wide spectral range will help advance the development of sensing systems for many applications, ranging from medical treatment to security technology. A critical component of the signature of human skin is the variability across the population. We describe a simple measurement method to measure human skin reflectance of the inside of the forearm. The variability of the reflectance spectra for a number of subjects measured at NIST is determined using statistical methods. The degree of variability is explored and discussed. We also propose a method for collaborating with other scientists, outside of NIST, to expand the data set of signatures to include a more diverse population and perform a meta-analysis to further investigate the variability of human skin reflectance.
The spectral reflectance signature of human skin provides opportunities to advance observations ranging from medical treatment to security applications. In this study 28 volunteers participated in a skin reflectance measurement of the inside of the right forearm. The reflectance measurements were made over the 250 nm to 2500 nm spectral range. The analysis included estimates of the variability attributed to the instrument, variability of the same subject, and variability among subjects. This allowed for determining measures of similarity and differences that indicate the inherent separability within the distribution. While this sample size may not fully represent a full diverse-population, it does provide a provisional reference point for modeling and simulation.
STARR II is a planned NIST facility for spectral measurements of specular reflectance and diffuse bidirectional
reflectance distribution function (BRDF) that is the follow-on to the current NIST STARR (Spectral Tri-function Automated Reference Reflectometer) facility. STARR II will improve and expand on the measurement capabilities of STARR, increasing spectral coverage in the short-wave infrared spectral region and adding out-of-plane BRDF measurement capability. We present characteristics of a tunable light source constructed for STARR II, which is based upon a supercontinuum fiber laser and has a tuning range from 500 nm to 2450 nm, alongside those of the current lampbased system in STARR. We then discuss considerations for measuring BRDF using this source. The STARR II goniometer will employ an articulated robotic arm to center and orient the sample, and we calculate the transformations from orientation of the sample and receiver to incident and scattering angles for measurements of in-plane and out-ofplane BRDF. We also present, for the first time, an analytic expression for the correction of measured BRDF to true BRDF due to the finite illumination area and collection aperture, and to the effects of uniformity of illumination. Finally, we present exploratory BRDF measurements on a diffuse sample made using the tunable supercontinnum source.
Measurements of bi-directional reflectance factor for diffuse reflectance from 1100 nm to 2500 nm using extended-range
indium gallium arsenide (exInGaAs) detectors in the NIST Spectral Tri-function Automated Reference
Reflectometer (STARR) facility are described. The determination of bi-directional reflectance factor with low
uncertainties requires the exInGaAs radiometer to be characterized for low-noise performance, linearity and spatial
uniformity. The instrument characterizations will be used to establish a total uncertainty budget for the reflectance
factor. To independently check the bi-directional reflectance factors, measurements also were made in a separate facility
in which the reflectance factor is determined using calibrated spectral irradiance and radiance standards. The total
combined uncertainties for the diffuse reflectances range from < 1 % at 1100 nm to 2.5 % at 2500 nm. At NIST, these
measurement capabilities will evolve into a calibration service for diffuse spectral reflectance in this wavelength region.
Materials with similar chemical compositions often exhibit different optical properties due to their structural composition. PTFE is widely used in many applications for both its mechanical and optical properties. Low density sintered PTFE has optical properties that make it desirable for use as a white diffuser in applications such as remote sensing. The contrast between the commonly available high density material and the low density material may be useful for those interested in optical modeling of scattered light. Additionally, some applications may find high density PTFE suitable for some optical applications. This paper describes measurements of BRDF, 8º/hemispherical reflectance, and directional hemispherical transmittance for both high density (HD) and low density (LD) sintered PTFE.
New transfer standard pyrometers, named "RT900" and "RT1550," operating at 900 nm and 1550 nm, respectively, have been designed, characterized, and calibrated with defined fixed points of the International Temperature Scale 1990 (ITS-90) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The pyrometers are designed for radiance temperature measurements in the range between the freezing temperatures of Sn (231.928 °C) and Ag (961.78 °C). These instruments also incorporate design elements optimized for compactness and portability that allow them to be used to interpolate, maintain and disseminate radiance temperature scales as well as for inter-laboratory comparisons. The calibration of the RT900 at different fixed points demonstrate agreement to within 25 mK. The size of source effect (SSE) correction for a source with a 40-mm diameter has been measured to be as low as 0.01 %.
Recent studies on dynamic temperature profiling and lithographic performance modeling of the post-exposure bake (PEB) process have demonstrated that the rate of heating and cooling may have an important influence on resist lithographic response. Measuring the transient surface temperature during the heating or cooling process with such accuracy can only be assured if the sensors embedded in or attached to the test wafer do not affect the temperature distribution in the bare wafer. In this paper we report on an experimental and analytical study to compare the transient response of embedded platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) sensors with surface-deposited, thin-film thermocouples (TFTC). The TFTCs on silicon wafers have been developed at NIST to measure wafer temperatures in other semiconductor thermal processes. Experiments are performed on a test bed built from a commercial, fab-qualified module with hot and chill plates using wafers that have been instrumented with calibrated type-E (NiCr/CuNi) TFTCs and commercial PRTs. Time constants were determined from an energy-balance analysis fitting the temperature-time derivative to the wafer temperature during the heating and cooling processes. The time constants for instrumented wafers ranged from 4.6 s to 5.1 s on heating for both the TFTC and PRT sensors, with an average difference less than 0.1 s between the TFTCs and PRTs and slightly greater differences on cooling.
A two-dimensional imaging spectrograph, developed for non- intrusive temperature measurements in flames, has been characterized using a pressure-controlled sodium heat pipe blackbody (Na-HPBB). The spectrograph contains a two- dimensional PtSi CCD array and provides spatial information in one dimension and spectral information in the other dimension. The usable range of the spectrograph, which images a line approximately 35 mm in length, covers the region from 2.5 micrometers to 5.0 micrometers . Using the stable and uniform Na-HPBB, the spectrograph was calibrated for absolute spectral radiance by employing Planck's Law. These measurements show that the spectrograph uniformity is within 0.25% (k equals 2), and provide calibration constants that can be applied to future measurements. The results presented here will enable the spectrograph to be used to measure the emission characteristics of high temperature surfaces, gases, and particles, and as a transfer detector to calibrate other secondary sources.
The Optical Technology Division (OTD) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) maintains the thermodynamic temperature scale above the silver freezing point using spectral radiance ratios according to the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90). Radiance temperature calibration services are performed in the OTD, and NIST's calibration services support industry, government agencies, national standards laboratories, pyrometer and blackbody manufacturers, universities, and U.S. military service calibration laboratories. In addition, the OTD also offers a four day Short Course on Temperature Measurement by Radiation Thermometry every year that extensively covers many aspects of radiation thermometry. Routine intercomparisons of the thermodynamic temperature scale are done with other national measurement laboratories for international verification of the accuracy of the issued calibrations. We describe research into alternatives to the ITS-90: the use of absolute detector standards to directly measure the temperature of a high temperature blackbody.
KEYWORDS: Black bodies, Calibration, Power supplies, Radiometry, Optical filters, Pyrometry, Temperature metrology, Standards development, Lamps, Feedback control
Development of a new spectral irradiance scale realization at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) requires a careful and complete calibration of a high- temperature blackbody between 1200 K and 2800 K. Filter radiometers have been calibrated to measure the spectral radiance (or radiance temperature) of the blackbody. Using a monochromator, the blackbody spectral radiance will then be used to determine the spectral irradiance distributions of primary and secondary spectral irradiance lamp standards at NIST. In this paper, a calibrated pyrometer and V((lambda) ) filter radiometer will be used to evaluate the high-temperature blackbody for determination of the optimum calibration method for the blackbody. The blackbody apparatus will be described in detail. When the power supply is the sole source of current control, the blackbody current is stable to within 0.056%, resulting in 0.72% for the uncertainty in the blackbody spectral radiance. To achieve our goal of 0.1% in the final blackbody radiance, a blackbody current stability of 0.007% is required. Due to the day-to-day variations in the current, calibrations of the blackbody msut be made frequently. Several feedback control options are recommended as possible solutions for improving both the short term and long term current stability.
A heat transfer model for hotplate baking is combined with a mass transfer model for solvent diffusion to predict the major effects of photoresist prebaking for photolithography. Solvent diffusivity as a function of solvent concentration and temperature is determined experimentally. The results of the model are a complete time-temperature history of the wafer, final solvent distribution within the resist film, and final resist thickness.
The macroscopic spread function describes the extent to which radiation is spread in a semitransparent material because of surface and subsurface scattering. The objective here is to investigate the effects of optical and geometrical parameters on the macroscopic spread function of plastic reference samples and reagent strip formats. A new feature is the use of a fast raster area scattering instrument (FRASI) instrument in measuring the spread function data of the plastic samples and reagent strip formats. Experimental measurements show that least spreading is associated with the off-white plastic samples using a wavelength of 700 nm and a reflected angle of 55 deg. The results for the Glucofilm™ reagent strip formats indicate that most spreading occurred with the 45-deg reflected angle and that least spreading is associated with measuring these reagent strips at 800 nm. The spreading curve determined from the experimental data can greatly assist the reflectometer designer in selecting the optimum optical parameters and geometrical dimensions of the reference sample and the reflectometer system.
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