We describe the fabrication of the two NuSTAR flight optics modules. The NuSTAR optics modules are glass-graphiteepoxy
composite structures to be employed for the first time in space-based X-ray optics by NuSTAR, a NASA Small
Explorer schedule for launch in February 2012. We discuss the optics manufacturing process, the qualification and
environmental testing performed, and briefly discuss the results of X-ray performance testing of the two modules. The
integration and alignment of the completed flight optics modules into the NuSTAR instrument is described as are the
optics module thermal shields.
The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) is a NASA Small Explorer mission scheduled for launch in
February 2012. NuSTAR will deploy two imaging CdZnTe spectrometers in the 6-79 keV energy band. The two
NuSTAR optics utilize multilayer-coated, thermally-slumped glass integrated into a titanium-glass-epoxy-graphite
composite structure, along with an extendable mast, to obtain 10.15 meter focal length. Using this approach, the
NuSTAR optics will obtain subarcminute imaging with large effective area over its entire energy band. NuSTAR's
conic-approximation Wolter-I optics are the first true hard X-ray focusing optics to be deployed on a satellite
experiment. We report on the design of the NuSTAR optics, present the status of the two flight optics under
construction, and report preliminary measurements that can be used to predict performance.
The requirements for the IXO (International X-ray Observatory) telescope are very challenging in respect of angular
resolution and effective area. Within a clear aperture with 1.7 m > R > 0.25 m that is dictated by the spacecraft envelope,
the optics technology must be developed to satisfy simultaneously requirements for effective area of 2.5 m2 at 1.25 keV,
0.65 m2 at 6 keV and 150 cm2 at 30 keV. The reflectivity of the bare mirror substrate materials does not allow these
requirements to be met. As such the IXO baseline design contains a coating layout that varies as a function of mirror
radius and in accordance with the variation in grazing incidence angle. The higher energy photon response is enhanced
through the use of depth-graded multilayer coatings on the inner radii mirror modules. In this paper we report on the first
reflectivity measurements of wedged ribbed silicon pore optics mirror plates coated with a depth graded W/Si multilayer.
The measurements demonstrate that the deposition and performance of the multilayer coatings is compatible with the
SPO production process.
The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, NuSTAR, is a NASA funded Small Explorer Mission, SMEX, scheduled
for launch in mid 2011. The spacecraft will fly two co-aligned conical approximation Wolter-I optics with a
focal length of 10 meters. The mirrors will be deposited with Pt/SiC and W/Si multilayers to provide a broad
band reflectivity from 6 keV up to 78.4 keV. To optimize the mirror coating we use a Figure of Merit procedure
developed for gazing incidence optics, which averages the effective area over the energy range, and combines an
energy weighting function with an angular weighting function to control the shape of the desired effective area.
The NuSTAR multilayers are depth graded with a power-law, di = a/(b + i)c, and we optimize over the total
number of bi-layers, N, c, and the maximum bi-layer thickness, dmax. The result is a 10 mirror group design
optimized for a flat even energy response both on and off-axis.
For the International X-ray observatory (IXO), a mirror module with an effective area of 3 m2 at 1.25 keV and at least
0.65 m2 at 6 keV has to be realized. To achieve this goal, coated silicon pore optics has been developed over the last
years. One of the challenges is to coat the Si plates and still to realize Si-Si bonding. It has been demonstrated that
ribbed silicon plates can be produced and assembled into stacks. All previously work has been done using uncoated Si
plates. In this paper we describe how to coat the ribbed Si plates with an Ir coating and a top C coating through a mask
so that there will be coating only between the ribs and not in the area where bonding takes place. The paper includes
description of the mounting jig and how to align the mask on top of the plate. We will also present energy scans from Si
plates coated through a mask.
The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) is a NASA satellite mission scheduled for launch in 2011. Using focusing optics with multilayer coating for enhanced reflectivity of hard X-rays (6-79 keV), NuSTAR will provide a combination of clarity, sensitivity and spectral resolution surpassing the largest observatories in this band by orders of magnitude. This advance will allow NuSTAR to test theories of how heavy elements are born, discover collapsed stars and black holes on all scales and explore the most extreme physical environments. We will present an overview of the NuSTAR optics design and production process and detail the optics performance.
The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) is a NASA Small Explorer (SMEX) mission which employs two
focusing optics. The optics are composed of stacks of thin mirror shells and spacers. Epoxy is used to bond the mirror
shells to the spacers and is a crucial component in determining the structural and optical performance of the telescopes.
We describe the epoxy selection for NuSTAR optics, emphasizing those epoxy characteristics essential to obtaining good
optical performance.
We describe a set of measurements on coated silicon substrates that are representative of the material to be used for the
XEUS High Performance Pore Optics (HPO) technology. X-ray angular reflectance measurements at 2.8 and 8 keV, and
energy scans of reflectance at a fixed angle representative of XEUS graze angles are presented. Reflectance is
significantly enhanced for low energies when a low atomic number over-coating is applied. Modeling of the layer
thicknesses and roughness is used to investigate the dependence on the layer thicknesses, metal and over coat material
choices. We compare the low energy effective area increase that could be achieved with an optimized coating design.
Future astrophysics missions operating in the hard X-ray/Soft Gamma ray range is slated to carry novel focusing
telescopes based on the use of depth graded multilayer reflectors. Current design studies show that, at the foreseen focal
lengths, it should be feasible to focus X-rays at energies as high as 300 keV. These designs use extrapolations of
theoretical and experimentally determined optical constants below 100 keV. We have previously shown that
determining the optical constants from traditional single layer film above 40 keV is very difficult. One needs to have
substrates which are very flat and it is very important to know the exact flatness. In this paper we report on the
experimental determination of optical constants up to and above 130 keV using substrates with sub arcsecond flatness.
We present these results as obtained at the National Synchrotron Light Source in Brookhaven and compare these to
theoretically calculated values and previous experiments.
Depth graded multilayer designs for hard x-ray telescopes in the 10 keV to 70-80 keV energy range have had either W or
Pt as the heavy element. These materials have been chosen because of reasonable optical constants, the possibility to
grow smooth interfaces with the spacer material, and the stability over time. On the flip side both W and Pt have an
absorption edge -- 69.5 keV (W) and 78.4 keV (Pt) -- which is very close to the two 44Ti lines at 67.9 keV and 78.4 keV
that are produced in the envelope of a super nova explosion. Other materials have better optical constants and no
absorption edges in this energy range, for example Ni0.93V0.07, but are not used because of high interface roughness. By
using a WC/SiC multilayer for the bottom and a Ni0.93V0.07/SiC multilayer for the thicker top layers of a depth graded
multilayer we have made a reflector that doesn't have a clear absorption edge. This reflector has been measured at
energies between 8 keV and 130 keV. At a graze angle of 0.11 degree there is still nearly the same reflectivity below the
W absorption edge as for a traditional W based coating, and above the W absorption edge there is still 48% reflection at 80 keV.
Future Astrophysics missions operating in the hard X-ray/Soft Gamma ray range is slated to carry novel focusing
telescopes based on the use of depth graded multilayer reflectors. Current design studies show that, at the foreseen focal
lengths, it should be feasible to focus X-rays at energies as high as 300 keV. These designs use extrapolations of
theoretical and experimentally determined optical constants from below 200 keV. In this paper we report on the first
experimental determination of optical constants up to and above 200 keV. We present these first results as obtained at
the National Synchrotron Light Source in Brookhaven and compare these to results obtained previously up to 180 keV of some of the same materials at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble.
Current multilayer designs for 10-80 keV hard X-ray telescope missions have focused primarily on the proven
properties of W and Pt based multilayer coatings. Recently a number of new material combinations and coating
capabilities have emerged which allows for more elaborate designs that can further extend the energy band of current
mission designs as well as avoid some of the unwanted absorption edge effects in the effective area near potentially
important line emission energies. These new design possibilities are investigated for current hard X-ray mission designs.
The new material combinations to be considered are recently proven capabilities of enhanced NiV/C coatings and
NiV/SiC coatings in conjuction with the well-established W based coatings.
The materials chosen for depth graded multilayer designs for hard x-ray telescopes (10 keV to 80 keV) have until now been focusing on W/Si, W/SiC, Pt/C, and Pt/SiC. These material combinations have been chosen because of good stability over time and low interface roughness, However both W and Pt have absorption edges in the interesting energy range from 70 - 80 keV. If looking at the optical constants Cu and Ni would be good alternative high-Z candidates since the k-absorption edges in Cu and Ni is below 10 keV. We have investigated both of these materials as the reflecting layer in combination with SiC as the spacer layer and give the performance in terms of roughness, minimum obtainable d-spacing and stability over time as deposited in our planar magnetron sputtering facility. Likewise we review the same properties of WC/SiC coatings which we have previously developed and which allow for very small d-spacings. The combination of WC/SiC or the well established W/SiC with the above mentioned Cu and Ni-containing multilayers in the same stack allows for novel telescope designs operating up to and above 100 keV without the absorption edge structure.
Graded depth multi-layer coatings have the potential to optimise the performance of X-ray reflective surfaces for improved energy response. A study of deposition techniques on silicon substrates representative of the XEUS High Performance Pore Optics (HPO) technology has been carried out. Measurements at synchrotron radiation facilities have been used to confirm the excellent performance improvements achievable with Mo/Si and W/Si multilayers. Future activities that will be necessary to implement such coatings in the HPO assembly sequence are highlighted. Further coating developments that may allow an optimisation of the XEUS effective area in light of potential changes to science requirements and telescope configurations are also identified. Finally an initial measurement of effects of radiation damage within the multilayers is reported.
This paper will discuss the coatings for the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) and describe the updates of the coating facility at the Danish National Space Center, necessary to make all the coatings in the required time frame. The inner part of the three NuSTAR telescopes will be coated with Pt/SiC and the outer part with W/SiC. To understand the roughness of the flight coatings, we will present results from 10 bilayer constant d-spacing coatings for both types of flight coatings. Also, data showing the homogeneity over the octant mirror segments as well as X-ray data from realistic depth graded coatings will be presented. The long time stability and stress in the coatings will be discussed.
The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) is a small explorer (SMEX) mission currently under an extended Phase A study by NASA. NuSTAR will be the first satellite mission to employ focusing optics in the hard X-ray band (8-80 keV). Its design eliminates high detector backgrounds, allows true imaging, and permits the use of compact high performance detectors. The result: a combination of clarity, sensitivity, and spectral resolution surpassing the largest observatories that have operated in this band by orders of magnitude. We present an overview of the NuSTAR optics design and production process. We also describe the progress of several components of our independent optics development program that are beginning to reach maturity and could possibly be incorporated into the NuSTAR production scheme. We then present environmental test results that are being conducted in preparation of full space qualification of the NuSTAR optics.
We have identified an inexpensive, readily available, mechanically stable, extremely smooth, elastic, and mechanically uniform plastic suitable for thin film X-ray optics. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is easily deformed without losing its elastic properties or surface smoothness. Most important, PET can be coated with mono- or multilayers that reflect X-rays at grazing incidence. We have used these properties to produce X-ray optics made either as a concentric nest of cylinders or as a spiral. We have produced accurately formed shells in precisely machined vacuum mandresl or used a pin and wheel structure to form a continuously wound spiral. The wide range of medical, industrial and scientific applications for our technology includes: a monochromatic X-ray collimater for medical diagnostics, a relay optic to transport an X-ray beam from the target in a scanning electron microscop0e to a lithium-drifted silicon and microcalorimeter detectors and a satellite mounted telescope to collect celestial X-rays. A wide variety of mono- and multilayer coatings allow X-rays up to ~100 keV to be reflected. Our paper presents data from a variety of diagnostic measurements on the properties of the PET foil and imaging results form single- and multi-shell lenses.
Focusing optics are now poised to dramatically improve the sensitivity and angular resolution at energies above 10 keV to levels that were previously unachievable by the past generation of background limited collimated and coded-aperture instruments. Active balloon programs (HEFT), possible Explorer-class satellites (NuSTAR - currently under Phase A study), and major X-ray observatories (Con-X HXT) using focusing optics will play a major role in future observations of a wide range of objects including young supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei, and galaxy clusters. These instruments call for low cost, grazing incidence optics coated with depth-graded multilayer films that can be nested to achieve large collecting areas. Our approach to building such instruments is to mount segmented mirror shells with our novel error-compensating, monolithic assembly and alignment (EMAAL) procedure. This process involves constraining the mirror segments to successive layers of graphite rods that are precisely machined to the required conic-approximation Wolter-I geometry. We present results of our continued development of thermally formed glass substrates that have been used to build three HEFT telescopes and are proposed for NuSTAR. We demonstrate how our experience in manufacturing complete HEFT telescopes, as well as our experience developing higher performance prototype optics, will lead to the successful production of telescopes that meet the NuSTAR design goals.
Complete hard X-ray optics modules are currently being produced for the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT), a balloon born mission that will observe a wide range of objects including young supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei, and galaxy clusters at energies between 20 and 70 keV. Large collecting areas are achieved by tightly nesting layers of grazing incidence mirrors in a conic approximation Wolter-I design. The segmented layers are made of thermally-formed glass substrates coated with depth-graded multilayer films for enhanced reflectivity. Our novel mounting technique involves constraining these mirror segments to successive layers of precisely machined graphite spacers. We report the production and calibration of the first HEFT optics module.
This paper outlines an in-depth study of the W/Si coated mirrors for the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT). We present data taken at 8, 40 and 60 keV obtained at the Danish Space Research Institute and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble. The set of samples were chosen to cover the parameter space of sample type, sample size and coating type. The investigation includes a study of the interfacial roughness across the sample surface, as substrates and later as coated, and an analysis of the roughness correlation in the W/Si coatings for N = 10 deposited bilayers. The powerlaw graded flight coating for the HEFT mirrors is studied for uniformity and scatter, as well as its performance at high energies.
The High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) will observe a wide range of objects including young supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei, and galaxy clusters at energies between 20 and 70 keV. Large collecting areas are achieved by tightly nesting layers of grazing incidence mirrors in a conic approximation Wolter-I design. The segmented mirrors that form these layers are made of thermally formed glass substrates coated with depth-graded multilayer films for enhanced reflectivity. The mirrors are assembled using an over-constraint method that forces the overall shape of the nominally cylindrical substrates to the appropriate conic form. We will present performance data on the HEFT optics and report the current status of the assembly production.
We report on the coating of depth graded W/Si multilayers on the thermally slumped glass substrates for the HEFT flight telescopes. The coatings consists of several hundred bilayers in an optimized graded power law design with stringent requirements on uniformity and interfacial roughness. We present the details of the planar magnetron sputtering facility including the optimization of power, Ar pressure and collimating geometry which allows us to coat the several thousand mirror segments required for each telescope module on a time schedule consistent with the current HEFT balloon project as well as future hard X-ray satellite projects. Results are presented on the uniformity, interfacial roughness, and reflectivity and scatter at hard X-ray energies.
A new generation of hard X-ray telescopes using focusing optics are poised to dramatically improve the sensitivity and angular resolution at energies above 10 keV to levels that were previously unachievable by the past generation of background-limited collimated and coded-aperture instruments. Active balloon programs (HEFT, InFocus), possible Explorer-class satellites, and major X-ray observatories (Constellation-X, XEUS) using focusing optics will play a major role in future observations of a wide range of objects including young supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei, and galaxy clusters. These instruments call for grazing incidence optics coated with depth-graded multilayer films to achieve large collecting areas. To accomplish the ultimate goals of the more advanced satellite missions such as Constellation-X, lightweight and low-cost substrates with angular resolution well below an arcminute must be developed. Recent experimental results will be presented on the development of improved substrates and precision mounting techniques that yield sub-arcminute performance.
A planar magnetron sputtering facility has been established at the Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI) for the production coating of depth graded multilayers on the thermally slumped glass segments which form the basis for the hard X-ray telescope on the HEFT balloon project. The facility is capable of coating 20-45 mirrors segments in each run. The coatings are optimized W/Si coatings. The paper describes the facility, the results of the calibration and presents data for the X-ray testing of flight mirrors.
We are developing the instrumentation and prototype samples at NIST to enable the counting of atom-spacings across linewidth features etched in silicon. This is an effort to allow the accurate counting of atom-spacings across a feature in a controlled environment and to subsequently transfer that dimensionally stabilized artifact to other measuring instruments. In this paper we will describe the sample preparation techniques, sample configurations and imaging instrumentation used in this project. We have constructed a multi-chamber ultra-high vacuum (UHV) system with silicon processing capabilities which include the high temperature removal of native oxides and the appropriate temperature control and vacuum environment for preparing long range atomically ordered silicon surfaces. We can also passivate the silicon surfaces by oxidation in a temperature and pressure controlled environment or simply allow a native oxide to grow in an air ambient. This facility has a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) with atomic lateral imaging capabilities and a 0.2 angstrom vertical noise floor. The loadlock chamber allows rapid transfer of multiple tips and samples into the UHV environment. The facility is additionally equipped with a field-ion/field-electron microscope (FIFEM) which can atomically image, measure, and prepare the STM tips. The FIFEM enables the use of STM tips of known dimensions and cleanliness on a regular basis.
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