Using off-the-shelf optical components a simple, compact optical polarimeter is designed for use with portable telescopes. The polarimeter is optimized for telescopes with an aperture of 10 inches and an f/10 focal ratio, which are typically used in introductory observational astronomy courses. The polarimeter can be used to measure bright standard stars that have published polarization values for the degree of polarization and position angle in the V band. Aperture photometry is used to measure the stellar fluxes on CCD images, which in turn is used to determine the Stokes parameters that are used to calculate the polarization state of a star. In using the polarimeter, students gain insight into how stellar polarization is accurately measured and they become familiar with how Stokes parameters are used in practice.
Simple, reliable, lightweight, and inexpensive thin films based sensors are still in intense development and high demand in many applications such as biomedical, industrial, environmental, military, and consumer products. One important class of sensors is the optical pH sensor. In addition, conformal thin film based sensors extend the range of application for pH optical sensors. We present the results on the fabrication and characterization of optical pH sensing coatings made through ionic self-assembled technique. These thin films are based on the combination of a polyelectrolyte and water-soluble organic dye molecule Direct Yellow 4. A series of films was fabricated and characterized in order to determine the optimized parameters of the polymer and of the organic dye solutions. The optical pH responses of these films were also studied. The transparent films were immersed in solutions at various temperature and pH values. The films are stable when immersed in solutions with pH below 9.0 and temperatures below 90 °C and they maintain their performance after longer immersion times. We also demonstrate the functionality of these coatings as conformal films.
We present a comprehensive student exercise in partial polarization. Students are first introduced to the concept of partial polarization using Fresnel Equations. Next, MATHCAD is used to compute and graph the reflectance for dielectrics materials. The students then design and construct a simple, easy to use collimated light source for their experiment, which is performed on an optical breadboard using optical components typically found in an optics lab above the introductory level. The students obtain reflection data that is compared with their model by a nonlinear least square fit using EXCEL. Sources of error and uncertainty are discussed and students present a final written report. In this one exercise students learn how an experiment is constructed “from the ground up”. They gain practical experience on data modeling and analysis, working with optical equipment, machining and construction, and preparing a final presentation.
Students experience the entire process of designing, fabricating and testing thin films during their capstone course. The films are fabricated by the ionic-self assembled monolayer (ISAM) technique, which is suited to a short class and is relatively rapid, inexpensive and environmentally friendly. The materials used are polymers, nanoparticles, and small organic molecules that, in various combinations, can create films with nanometer thickness and with specific properties. These films have various potential applications such as pH optical sensors or antibacterial coatings. This type of project offers students an opportunity to go beyond the standard lecture and labs and to experience firsthand the design and fabrication processes. They learn new techniques and procedures, as well as familiarize themselves with new instruments and optical equipment. For example, students learn how to characterize the films by using UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometry and in the process learn how the instruments operate. This work compliments a previous exercise that we introduced where students use MATHCAD to numerically model the transmission and reflection of light from thin films.
Thin films are an important and sometimes essential component in many optical and electrical devices. As part of their studies in optics, students receive a basic grounding in the propagation of light through thin films of various configurations. Knowing how to calculate the transmission and reflection of light of various wavelengths through thin film layers is essential training that students should have. We present exercises where students use Mathcad to numerically model the transmission and reflection of light from various thin film configurations. By varying the number of layers and their optical parameters, students learn how to adjust the transmission curves in order to tune particular filters to suit needed applications.
Polarization is a concept most students readily understand in terms of the preferential direction of electric field vectors. The visualization of the electric field component of an electromagnetic wave facilitates the understanding of a large body of knowledge concerning propagation and measurement of completely and partially polarized light. Little known to undergraduate students, however, is the Stokes parameters and students typically receive a cursory treatment regarding their usefulness in describing and measuring polarized light in a laboratory or astronomical setting. We present laboratory exercises where students use Stokes parameters when measuring and describing the polarization of electromagnetic radiation and in the statistical analysis of polarized light.
An educational experience in numerical modeling for physics majors at Virginia Military Institute has been created as part of the undergraduate research learning paradigm. As part of the independent project course required of all physics majors at VMI, those joining the thin films research group are taught the various stages of numerical modeling applied to complex problems (such as optical limiting) as a precursor to experimental work. Students are introduced to a realistic method of research involving open-ended experiments by this exercise. By teaching students how to design, create, and test a complex numerical model, they gain insight into how an experiment is set up and executed as well as what results can be anticipated. We present an exercise in which undergraduate students use MATHCAD in their modeling and calculations.
The design and fabrication of thin film temperature sensors for various applications is an important and well established field. In order to gain familiarity with the design and fabrication of such devices, students at the Virginia Military Institute create and test their own thin film temperature sensors using organic polymers. The sensor is created by depositing a conducting polymer onto a flexible substrate with electrical contacts deposited by thermal evaporation. The resistance of the polymer as a function of temperature establishes a relationship that is then used to determine unknown resistances.
An educational experience in numerical modeling for physics majors at Virginia Military Institute has been created as part of the undergraduate research learning paradigm. As part of the independent project course required of all physics majors at VMI, those joining the thin films research group are taught the various stages of numerical modeling applied to complex problems (such as optical limiting) as a precursor to experimental work. Students are introduced to a realistic method of research involving open-ended experiments by this exercise. By teaching students how to design, create, and test a complex numerical model, they gain insight into how an experiment is set up and executed as well as what results can be anticipated. We present an exercise in which undergraduate students use Mathcad in their modeling and calculations.
The interface between polymer and fullerene in organic photovoltaic devices is improved by thermally induced interdiffusion. Starting from a bilayer of 2-methoxy-5-(2’-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene copolymer (MEH-PPV) and the Buckminsterfullerene (C60) devices are heated in the vicinity of the glass transition temperature creating a gradient bulk-heterojunction. Interdiffused devices show photoluminescence quenching with concomitant improvements in photocurrents. Variation of the polymer layer thickness shows an increase in photocurrents with decreasing layer thickness within the examined thickness regime as transport of the separated charges out of the device is improved. The interdiffusion was observed in situ by monitoring the photocurrents during the heating step. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy reveals C60 clusters of up to 30 nm in diameter in the interdiffused devices. The clustering of the fullerene molecules puts a significant constraint on the interdiffusion process.
Ionically self-assembled monolayers (ISAMs), fabricated by alternate adsorption of cationic and anionic components, yield exceptionally homogeneous thin films with sub- nanometer control of the thickness and relative special location of the component materials. Using organic electrochromic materials such as polyaniline, we report studies of electrochromic responses in ISAM films. Reversible changes in the absorption spectrum are observed with the application of voltages on the order of 1.0 V. Measurements are made using both liquid electrolytes and in all-solid state devices incorporating solid polyelectrolytes such as poly(2-acylamido 2-methyl propane sulfonic acid) (PAMPS). Due to the precise nanometer scale control of thickness and composition of the electrochromic composite system, switching times faster than 50 ms have been demonstrated.
We report the fabrication of thin organic layers and photovoltaic devices made from them. Building thin layers of organic materials via the method of ionically self-assembled monolayers provides control over the layer thickness and composition of multilayer structures on a nanometer scale. This allows to accurately dope a photoluminescent host material with energy or charge accepting guests, changing the emissive character of the pure photoluminescent host film to a predominantly non-emissive, charge generating structure. We show that by varying the concentration of the guest Copper phthalocyanine and C60(OH)2 in poly- (para-phenylene-vinylene) we can measure the energy migration as well as dissociation of the exciton and can determine the lifetime and the diffusion radius of the exciton. Increasing the number of dopands in the host material, the photoluminescence emission spectra shift and decrease in intensity reflecting a decrease in the number of excitons transferring to neighboring chains or conjugation segments. For high dopand concentrations the recombination of excitons only happens on the same chain as the generation. Building a device to achieve the optimal guest/host ratio for optimal exciton dissociation is one important step in the design of high efficiency photovoltaic devices.
Polymeric films fabricated from ionically self-assembled monolayers (ISAMs) spontaneously from in a noncentrosymmetric structure requisite for a nonzero second order nonlinear optical (NLO) susceptibility, (chi) (2), without the need for electric field poling. ISAM NLO films exhibit excellent long-term temporal stability of (chi) (2), having shown no decay over a period of nearly three years. They are also remarkably stable at elevated temperatures. While (chi) (2) decreases by 20 percent as the temperature is raised to 150 degrees C, total recovery of the susceptibility is observed upon cooling, demonstrating that the decrease is not due to an irreversible randomization of the chromophore alignment. The thickness, orientational order, and NLO response are found to be strongly dependent on the pH and ionic strength of the solutions form which the films are deposited. The largest (chi) (2) values are observed in films with the smallest bilayer thickness. This suggests that polar orientation is obtained primarily at the interfaces between adjacent layers rather than throughout a full monolayer.
We present detailed studies of polymer light emitting diodes fabricated from ionically self-assembled monolayer thin films. The ionically self-assembled monolayer (ISAM) films are created with a new thin film fabrication technique that allows detailed structural and thickness control at the molecular level. The ISAM fabrication method simply involves the dipping of a charged substrate alternately into polycationic and polyanionic aqueous solutions at room temperature. Importantly, the ISAM technique yields exceptionally homogeneous, large area films with excellent control of total film thickness. Our studies concentrate on improving the performance of ISAM light emitting diodes that include poly(para-phenylene vinylene) (PPV). The individual thickness of each monolayer and the interpenetration of adjacent layers can be precisely manipulated through the parameters of the electrolyte solutions. The effects of the pH and ionic strength of the immersion solutions, the total film thickness, and the PPV thermal conversion parameters on the photoluminescence and electroluminescence yields have been systematically studied. Through the ISAM process we can also deposit well-defined thicknesses of different polymers at the indium tin oxide and aluminum electrode interfaces. The interface layers are found to affect the electroluminescence efficiency.
Charles Brands, T. Piok, Patrick Neyman, A. Erlacher, C. Soman, M. Murray, Raoul Schroeder, James Heflin, Wilhelm Graupner, Daniela Marciu, Adam Drake, Michael Miller, Hong Wang, Harry Gibson, Harry Dorn, Guenther Leising, M. Guzy, Rick Davis
We use the technique of ironically self-assembled monolayers (ISAMs) to produce photovoltaic devices of well-controlled thickness and composition. The ISAM nanostructure fabrication method simply involves the alternate dipping of a charged substrate into aqueous cationic and anionic solutions at room temperature. We have employed several approaches to combine the tetrahydrothiophenium precursor of PPV with fullerenes and other organic materials .We apply modulation spectroscopy for the electro-optical characterization of the ISAM-devices. Analyzing the thickness dependence of the recorded photocurrent action spectra allows us to identify the photoactive region within the devices. The modulation frequency dependence of the photocurrent can be assigned to the influence of trapped charges taking part in the photovoltaic process. By utilizing the ability to control both thickness and composition of the organic layer at a nanometer level of precision, the composition and concentration of these defects has ben systematically varied.
We demonstrate, for the first time, that a new ionically self-assembled monolayer (ISAM) technique for thin film deposition can be employed to fabricate materials possessing the noncentrosymmetry that is requisite for a second order, nonlinear optical response. Using two different commercially-available polyelectrolytes, we have
produced ISAM nonlinear optical thin films with values comparable to that of quartz. As a result of the ionic attraction between successive layers, the ISAM films self-assemble into a noncentrosymmetric structure that has exhibited no measureable decay of at room temperature over a period of more than four months. The x2 of ISAM films has been examined by second harmonic generation using a fundamental wavelength of 1200 nm. The second harmonic intensity of the films exhibits the expected quadratic dependences on fundamental intensity and film thickness while the polarization dependence is consistent with orientation of the chromophore dipole moment perpendicular to the substrate.
The optical limiting performance of C60 is shown to be extended to longer wavelengths by derivatization of
the fullerene. While the reverse saturable absorption behavior of C60 generally improves at wavelengths longer than
532 nm due to decreased ground state absorption and increased excited state absorption, the peak of the triplet-triplet
excited state absorption at 750 nm is inaccessible as a result of the near complete transparency of C60 beyond 650
nm. Partial breaking of the spherical it-conjugation by attached substituents leads to increased ground state
absorption cross-sections in the appropriate wavelength range. The peak of the triplet-triplet absorption is shifted to
700 nm in the C60 derivatives, resulting in exceptionally strong optical limiting in this spectral region.
We report two separate studies of the nonlinear optical properties of unique fullerene materials. Degenerate four- wave mixing measurements of the endohedral metallofullerene Er2 at C82 at 1064 nm show that the third order susceptibility is increased by more than two orders of magnitude relative to the empty cage fullerenes as a result of the metal-to-cage charge transfer. Optical limiting studies of C60 derivatives and higher fullerenes in the 680 to 880 nm spectral region demonstrate that these materials are strong reverse saturable absorbers at wavelengths where C60 itself is transparent. The tremendous variety of available fullerene-derived structures provides important opportunities for optimization of nonlinear optical responses.
The wavelength-dependence of optical limiting in the reverse saturable absorber C60 has been studied in detail over a large spectral range and compared to that of two phthalocyanines. The reverse saturable absorption of C60 is found to increase at wavelengths longer than the standardly measured 532 nm. The optical limiting data have been analyzed in terms of the dynamical population rate equations to obtain the excited state absorption cross-sections. The computational effort of the analysis is greatly reduced by a semi-analytic solution to the rate equations that we have developed. We have also demonstrated that the spectral window for optical limiting of fullerenes can be increased to include longer wavelengths at which C60 is transparent. Both a C60 charge-transfer complex and C76 have been shown to exhibit strong reverse saturable absorption at long wavelengths.
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