Zernike polynomial surface and wavefront descriptions have been used in the manufacture of projection optics for microlithography since the 1970’s. This is because the optical tolerances are so small that one cannot rely on trial-anderror to achieve diffraction-limited wavefront correction. No manufactured optical surface can be considered to be spherical or even rotationally symmetrical; they have to be measured and systematically compensated. Over the last few decades of Moore’s Law there have been continuing decreases in wavefront tolerances and a consequent increase in sophistication of deterministic optical polishing and compensation strategies for residual surface and alignment errors. Optical designs have evolved from all-spherical to the inclusion of rotationally symmetric aspheric surfaces, more recently in the form of Forbes Q-type polynomials, to Zernike polynomials that include bilaterally symmetric terms. These historical trends and their application to EUV projection optics are reviewed and illustrated with two recent optical designs.
The field of optical design has a rich history and a rewarding future. Four leaders in the field will start the International Optical Design Conference with a plenary panel to discuss the history, the current trends, and what the outlook is for this exciting field. Topics will range from lens design in previous years to zoom lens to microlithography to free-form surfaces for illumination to imaging applications.
The history of Nikon's projection lens development for optical microlithography started with the first "Ultra Micro-Nikkor" in 1962, which was used for making photo-masks. Nikon's first wafer stepper "NSR-1010G" was developed with a g-line projection lens in 1980. Since then, many kinds of projection lenses have been developed for each generation of stepper or scanner. In addition to increasing numerical aperture (NA) and field size, there have been many technical transitions for the projection lens, such as shortening the wavelength, controlling Zernike aberrations with phase measurement interferometry (PMI) for low k1 lithography, using aspherical lenses, applying kinematic optomechanical mounts, and utilizing free asphere re-polishing steps in the lens manufacturing process. The most recent advancement in projection lens technology is liquid immersion and polarization control for high NA imaging. NA now exceeds 1.0, which is the theoretical limit for dry (in air) imaging. At each transition, the amount of information that goes through the projection lens has been increased. In this paper, the history of the microlithographic lens is reviewed from several different points of view, such as specification, optical design, lens manufacturing, etc. In addition, future options of the projection lens are discussed briefly.
Rayleigh scaling equations for resolution and the control of computer chip critical dimensions (CD) within a finite depth of focus (DOF) have always indicated that resolution is better improved by reductions in wavelength of exposure light rather than by increasing the numerical aperture (NA) of the projection optics, particularly as it approaches the physical limit in air of 1.0. However, liquid immersion of the image increases the physical NA limits and presents new optical design challenges, while postponing the necessity for drastic reductions in the wavelength.
Harry Sewell, Daniel Cote, David Williamson, Mark Oskotsky, Lev Sakin, Tim O'Neil, John Zimmerman, Richard Zimmerman, Mike Nelson, Christopher Mason, David Ahouse, Hilary Harrold, Philip Lamastra, David Callan
As the semiconductor industry accelerates the pace of change, a shift in exposure wavelength from 248 nm to 193 nm becomes inevitable. Correspondingly, the change to a shorter wavelength and the desire to maintain productivity, necessitates a fundamental reassessment of system design approach. Evaluation of resolution and k-factor for a lithographic tool operating at 193 nm and 0.75 numerical aperture indicates that 130 nm node production will be manageable with binary mask, and that performance consistent with 100 nm node requirements and potentially beyond will be achievable with the use of advanced lithographic techniques. This paper reviews the design, system performance analysis and early results for a full-field catadioptric lithography tool operating at numerical apertures up to 0.75 NA.
Lord Rayleigh's well-known equations for resolution and depth of focus indicate that resolution is better improved by reducing the wavelength of light rather than by increasing the numerical aperture (NA) of the projection optics, particularly when NA is approaching its physical limit of 1.0 in air (or vacuum). Vector aerial image simulations of diffraction-limited Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) and Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithographic systems verify this simple view, even though Rayleigh's constants in Microlithography are not constant because of a variety of image enhancement techniques that attempt to compensate for the shortcomings of the aerial image when it is pushed to the limit. The aerial image is not the whole story, however. The competition between DUV and EUV systems will be decided more by economic and technological factors such as risk, time and cost of development and cost of ownership. These in turn depend on cost, availability and quality of light sources, refracting materials, photoresists and reticles.
Daniel Cote, David Ahouse, Daniel Galburt, Hilary Harrold, Justin Kreuzer, Mike Nelson, Mark Oskotsky, Geoffrey O'Connor, Harry Sewell, David Williamson, John Zimmerman, Richard Zimmerman
The never ending drive for faster and denser ICS has reached a staggering pace is attributable to the economics of the semiconductor industry and competition among chip manufacturers. This quest may be approached in different ways. A common approach is to continue to push the 248nm wavelength lithographic tools. This paper reviews the status of 193nm lithography with respect to its production worthiness, capability and extendibility when compared to 248nm systems. Key issues such as cost of ownership and process maturity are discussed. Analytical results, system analyses and recent lithographic results are presented. Conclusions are offered with respect to the logical timing of the insertion of 193nm lithography tools into semiconductor manufacturing.
Offner's ring-field all-reflecting triplet was the first successful projection system used in microlithography. It evolved over several generations, increasing NA and field size, reducing the feature sizes printed from three down to one micron. Because of its relative simplicity, large field size and broad spectral bandwidth it became the dominant optical design used in microlithography until the early 1980's, when the demise of optical lithography was predicted.
Rumours of the death of optics turned out to be exaggerated; what happened instead was a metamorphosis to more complex optical designs. A reduction ring-field system was developed, but the inevitable loss of concentricity led to a dramatic increase in complexity. Higher NA reduction projection optics have therefore been full-field, either all-refracting or catadioptric using a beamsplitter and a single mirror.
At the present time, the terminal illness of optical lithography is once again being prognosed, but now at 0.1 micro feature sizes early in the next millenium. If optics has a future beyond that, it lies at wavelengths below the practical transmission cut-off of all refracting materials. Scanning all-reflecting ring-field systems are therefore poised for a resurgence, based on their well-established advantage of rotational symmetry and consequent small aberration variations over a small, annular field. This paper explores some such designs that potentially could take optical lithography down to the region of 0.025 micron features.
The evolution of microlithography to 0.25 micrometers and below has driven the need for performance enhancements in several critical areas. Among these are imaging, illumination, and overlay. This paper briefly reviews MicrascanTM III system concepts. The main body of the paper presents system level performance and discusses the key subsystems which enable 0.25 micron imaging and 55 nm overlay. Autocal, MicrascanTM III's image, reticle and wafer position reference subsystem is discussed with respect to functionality and performance with a pulsed illumination source. MicrascanTM III illuminator performance, including automated off axis illumination module are presented. Performance of the magnetically levitated Monostage and its interaction with overlay and imaging is discussed. System performance with respect to resolution, image quality and overlay on product levels is presented and analyzed.
David Williamson, James McClay, Keith Andresen, Gregg Gallatin, Marc Himel, Jorge Ivaldi, Christopher Mason, Andrew McCullough, Charles Otis, John Shamaly, Carol Tomczyk
Catadioptric step-and-scan lithography offers specific advantages over step-and-repeat all- refractive (dioptric) systems as resolution requirements drive to 0.25micrometers in volume production. For the Micrascan family of step-and-scan tools this step in the evolutionary path from 0.35micrometers to 0.25micrometers has involved changes to both the projection optics and illumination system.
A solution to the Monochromatic Quartet problem posed at the 1990 International Lens Design Conference 1 is explained in terms of its origins and influences from several photographic and micro lithographic lens designs. Simple considerations are given for the selection of a starting point for local optimization which improve the chances of finding the global optimum.
While it cannot be claimed that this Quartet solution is a practical one, the problem did not require it to be so. It does, however, illustrate several important features of real lenses, and is shown to lie in performance between photographic and microlithographic lenses. The problem specifically excluded catadioptric designs, but a solution that ignores this rule is shown to give a significantly better minimum, illustrating that even the global optimum is local to the space defined by a given set of constraints.
High-quality imaging is essential for having the largest available process window for the various lithographic mask features, particularly those at the resolution limit of the lens. While lithographic lenses are designed to be 'diffraction limited,' shortcomings in the manufacturing process can introduce aberrations which affect imaging. The effects of such aberrations are explored via computer simulation, using exposure-defocus (E-D) diagrams and plots of linewidth versus focus for isolated and grouped lines. Data from a variety of lithographic lenses and the criteria for measuring lens performance are discussed.
Microlithographic lenses are used to project an electrical circuit pattern onto the surface of a semiconductor wafer. This course will provide a background in the design and manufacturing issues of such optical projection systems used in photolithography.
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