We present a fiber-optic dual-confocal laser caliper method for noncontact high-precision sensing and measuring thickness and refractive index of intraocular lens (IOL) implants. The principle of the method is based on sensing and measuring the confocal intensity response of the laser beam reflection from the opposite object surfaces, which provides the advanced feature of having no limitations on the object shape, thickness, and transparency. Using single-mode optical fibers and a 658-nm laser source, the thickness measurement accuracy was assessed to be as high as 5 μm. In addition, refractive index of a transparent object with thickness smaller than the working distance of the focusing lenses can be measured. The thickness and refractive index of a planoconvex IOL were measured with a high accuracy.
We performed the feasibility study using speckle variance optical coherence tomography (SvOCT) to monitor the thermally induced protein denaturation and coagulation process as a function of temperature and depth. SvOCT provided the depth-resolved image of protein denaturation and coagulation with microscale resolution. This study was conducted using egg white. During the heating process, as the temperature increased, increases in the speckle variance signal was observed as the egg white proteins coagulated. Additionally, by calculating the cross-correlation coefficient in specific areas, denaturized egg white conditions were successfully estimated. These results indicate that SvOCT could be used to monitor the denaturation process of various proteins.
Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (ORPAM) in theory provides lateral resolution equivalent to the optical diffraction limit. Scattering media, such as biological turbid media, attenuates the optical signal and also alters the diffraction-limited spot size of the focused beam. The ORPAM signal is generated only from a small voxel in scattering media with dimensions equivalent to the laser spot size after passing through scattering layers and is detected by an acoustic transducer, which is not affected by optical scattering. Thus, both ORPAM and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) reject scattered light. A multimodal optical microscopy platform that includes ORPAM and CLSM was constructed, and the lateral resolution of both modes was measured using patterned thin metal film with and without a scattering barrier. The effect of scattering media on the lateral resolution was studied using different scattering coefficients and was compared to computational results based on Monte Carlo simulations. It was found that degradation of lateral resolution due to optical scattering was not significant for either ORPAM or CLSM. The depth discrimination capability of ORPAM and CLSM was measured using microfiber embedded in a light scattering phantom material. ORPAM images demonstrated higher contrast compared to CLSM images partly due to reduced acoustic signal scattering.
In this study, a photoacoustic detector integrated with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was used to measure
biomarkers in gas samples independently. Simulated exhaled breath samples were created by mixing varying
concentrations of acetone, ammonia and ethane. The results of these measurements demonstrate the potential of
photoacoustic spectroscopy to detect biomarkers from human breath.
Quantitative evaluation of the potential radiation hazards of scanning light sources in medical optical devices is critical. Currently, point scanning light sources of continuous radiation are treated as pulsed sources, where the dwell time at each point is equal to the pulse duration. This study compares the photothermal effects from scanning light and pulsed sources using numerical calculation for scanning without restricting aperture and with various spot sizes. The calculation results show that the thermal damage threshold of scanning source not restricted by measurement aperture does not significantly differ from that of pulsed source. Temporal temperature response and size-dependent photothermal effect also confirm the similarity between scanning and pulsed sources.
Microbial biofilm is a colony of single bacteria cells (planktonic) that attached to surfaces, attract other microorganisms
to attach and grow, and together they build an extracellular matrix composed of polysaccharides, protein, and DNA.
Eventually, some cells will detach and spread to other surface. Biofilm on medical devices can cause severe infection to
all age ranges from infant to adult. Therefore, it is important to detect biofilm in a fast and efficient manner.
Hyperspectral imaging was utilized for distinguishing wide area of biofilm coverage on various materials and on
different textures of stainless steeltest coupons. Not only is the coverage of biofilm important, but also the shear stress of
biofilm on the attached surfaces is significant. This study investigates the effects of shear stress on the adhesion of
biofilms on common medical device surfaces such as glass, polycarbonate, polytetrafluoroethylene, and stainless steel
with different textures. Biofilm was grown using Ps. aeruginosa and growth was monitored after 24 and 48 hours at 37°
C. The coupons covered with biofilm were tilted at 45 degrees and 90 degrees for 30 seconds to induce shear stress and
Hyperspectral images were taken. We hypothesize that stronger attachment on rough surface would be able to withstand
greater shear stress compared to smooth surface.
KEYWORDS: Safety, Thermal modeling, Laser tissue interaction, Tissue optics, Skin, Optical simulations, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Monte Carlo methods, Data modeling, Breast
Medical diagnostic devices based on photoacoustics represent an emerging area with significant potential for evaluation of brain injury and chemical agent exposure, as well as detection of pandemic diseases and cancer. However, few studies have addressed photothermal safety of these devices which emit high-power laser pulses to generate rapid, selective, yet non-destructive heating of subsurface structures. Towards elucidation of laser-tissue interactions and factors of safety for photothermal injury, we have developed a three-dimensional numerical model including light propagation, heat transfer and thermal damage algorithms. Literature surveys were performed to identify appropriate optical properties and the range of device exposure levels implemented in prior in vivo studies. Initial simulations provided model validation against results from the literature. Simulations were then performed based on breast tissue with discrete blood vessels irradiated by a train of laser pulses (10 Hz) at 800 and 1064 nm. For a constant exposure level, increasing beam diameter from 0.2 to 2.0 cm led to a factor of 2.5 increase in subsurface heat generation rates. Our preliminary modeling results indicate that for a 10 second tissue exposure under standard photoacoustic imaging conditions, irradiance-based safety limits should provide a factor of safety of 6 or greater over exposure levels that induce thermal coagulation. Opticalthermal modeling represents a powerful tool for elucidating photothermal effects relevant to the safety and effectiveness of photoacoustic systems.
Optical radiation hazards of scanning light sources are often evaluated using pulsed light source
criteria, with the relevant pulse parameter equivalent to the scanning light source determined by the energy
delivered through a measurement aperture. This study utilizes a numerical analysis based upon the
melanin granule model to compare the thermal effects of scanning and pulsed light sources through a
measurement aperture in the pigmented retinal layer. The numerical analysis calculates the thermal
contribution of individual melanin granules with varying temporal sequence, and finds that temperature
changes and thermal damage thresholds for the two different types of light sources were not equal.
We have investigated different types of optical diffusers for the image quality assessment of
photoacoustic tomography (PAT). PAT has been adapted in many biomedical research efforts over the past decade,
however, studies on image quality of PAT have not been performed as much as that for photoacoustic microscopy.
We developed a simple imaging phantom using strings of red plastic embedded in gelatinous base. Using a 532 nm
Nd:YAG laser and focused/unfocused transducers, we reconstructed PAT images of the phantom with various types
of optical diffusers placed on top of phantoms. Our initial results showed that the uniformity of the diffuser did not
affect the PAT image quality, while the degree of light scattering contributed relatively more to the image quality.
Image quality of biological samples will be presented and discussed.
Contamination of the inner surface of indwelling (implanted) medical devices by microbial biofilm is a
serious problem. Some microbial bacteria such as Escherichia coli form biofilms that lead to potentially lifethreatening
infections. Other types of medical devices such as bronchoscopes and duodenoscopes account for the
highest number of reported endoscopic infections where microbial biofilm is one of the major causes for these
infections. We applied a hyperspectral imaging method to detect biofilm contamination on the surface of several
common materials used for medical devices. Such materials include stainless steel, titanium, and stainless-steeltitanium
alloy. Potential uses of hyperspectral imaging technique to monitor biofilm attachment to different material
surfaces are discussed.
Due to the low signal levels typical of two-photon microscopy (TPM) in biological samples, optical
design optimization is critical. One of the most important factors is overfilling of the back aperture of the objective
lens. A variable beam expander is commonly placed before the scanning mirrors to achieve this goal, however, this
may cause degradation of image quality due to increased dispersion. Additionally, scanning mirror size restricts the
degree of expansion, which often prevents the overfilling of objective lens back aperture. We investigated the
implementation of variable beam expansion optics after the scanning mirrors. Ray-tracing analyses confirmed that
the post-scanner beam expansion has two key advantages over the conventional pre-scanner beam expansion
approach: decreasing the number of optical elements reduces pulse dispersion and reducing the size of the scanning
mirror enables faster scanning. Resolution and aberration of a TPM with post-scanner beam expansion optics were
analysed.
Optical radiation hazards of scanning light sources are often evaluated using pulsed light source criteria, with the relevant pulse parameter equivalent to the scanning light source determined by the energy delivered through a measurement aperture. However, physical equivalence has not been completely understood: a pulsed light source is temporally dynamic but spatially stationary, while a scanning light source is temporally stationary but spatially dynamic. This study introduces a numerical analysis based upon the melanin granule lattice model to investigate the equivalence of scanning and pulsed light sources through a measurement aperture and their respective thermal effects in the pigmented retinal layer. The numerical analysis calculates the thermal contribution of individual melanin granules with varying temporal sequence, and finds that temperature changes and thermal damage thresholds for the two different types of light sources were not equal. However, dwell times of 40 to 200 μsec did not produce significant differences between pulsed and scanning light sources in temperature change and thermal damage thresholds to the sample tissue.
We present a simple fiber-optic confocal method for high-precision thickness measurement of optically transparent and
non-transparent objects that require noncontact measurement. The method is based on measurement of confocal backreflection
responses from the opposite surfaces of objects, which imposes inessential limitations on the shape, thickness,
and transparency of testing objects. A novel reference comparison method to eliminate additional errors existing
commonly in confocal microscope designs is adapted. The measurement error highly depends on the axial response of
confocal microscope, and was measured to be 5.0 μm using a single-mode optical fiber construction, 60× objective
lenses, and a 658-nm-wavelength laser source. We demonstrate the method using lensed-fiber sensors, which reduces the
size of the experimental setup so that the method can be utilized for smaller samples at in-vivo situation. We demonstrate
the proof-of-concept measurement using biological samples.
Scanning light sources in biophotonic devices are considered as either extended or pulsed sources when their potential
optical hazard is evaluated. While the existing evaluation criteria are directly applicable to scanning light sources in most
cases, different dwell-time and overlap between the beams need to be taken into account to obtain maximum irradiation.
The effect of dwell-time and overlap of scanning light source on the irradiation of lights to skin was theoretically and
experimentally analyzed in this report.
Some substantial functions of collimating lens in two-lens confocal microscope configuration were studied using raytracing
software and experiments. Also, basic advantages of using a high-numerical-aperture optical fiber for a confocal
microscope configuration were investigated. It provides higher confocality without reducing the coupling efficiency
between light signal and fiber. We performed comparative experiments using two optical fibers with different numerical
apertures and the results from axial confocal response tests agreed with the theoretical prediction.
We have tested various methods to suppress the modal noise in multi-mode fiber (MMF) output from an ultrabroadband
supercontinuum light which is generated in a nonlinear photonic-crystal fiber (PCF) pumped with a 1.06-μmwavelength,
sub-nanosecond-pulse-width, 8-kHz-rep-rate Nd:YAG laser source. Significant amount of modal noise
including spectral fluctuations was observed when the output from the photonic crystal single-mode fiber (SMF) was
directly coupled into MMF. Standard mode-exciting and -mixing techniques such as mode scrambling and fiber
stretching showed minimal effect on noise suppression. We observed significant suppression of modal noise by
expanding the output beam from the PCF and tightly focus back into MMF using multiple lenses. The resulting spectra
of the different MMFs are compared with the output from different SMFs coupled to the supercontinuum source, which
are necessary to cover the broadband range of the supercontinuum source over more than two octaves, from 450 nm up
to 2100 nm wavelength.
Optical stimulation (OS) is a relatively novel approach for restoring function to the damaged nervous system. The
effectiveness and safety of OS is dependent upon selecting the appropriate stimulation parameters. This involves
stimulating neurons to their activation threshold while preventing laser-induced tissue injury. Although significant
advances have been made in studying the efficacy of OS, safety parameters are still being developed. We have employed
electrophysiological techniques to determine salient experimental parameters of safety that can be used to optimize OS.
Extracellular recordings of compound nerve potentials were obtained from excised adult rat sciatic nerves. OS was
accomplished with infrared pulsed Nd:YAG, Er:YAG and diode lasers that had peak wavelength emissions at 1.064 μm,
2.94 μm and 1.85 μm, respectively. Electrically evoked compound action potentials (E-CAPs) were assayed before and
after laser irradiation to determine if OS affected E-CAPs. Injurious laser irradiation doses were observed at levels 2-3
fold greater than optical threshold, producing tissue hyalinization and decreases in the peak amplitude of E-CAPs.
However, effects on electrical threshold and conduction velocity were negligible. At laser irradiation doses near optical
threshold, low repetition rates of laser pulses produced a gradual increase in laser evoked CAP (L-CAP) amplitudes,
suggesting a cumulative effect in the interactions between light and tissue. Higher repetition rates (5-10 Hz) at laser
irradiation doses 2-3 fold above optical threshold produced a decrement in L-CAP and E-CAP amplitudes. These results
suggest that laser pulse parameters have a direct impact on optical stimulation and damage thresholds.
Fiber-optic-based confocal microscopy has been extensively used as an effective imaging and sensor technology due to
its submicron spatial resolution, flexible beam delivery, and scanning potential. Recent research efforts in confocal
microscopy have been focused on improving the resolution, increasing the imaging speed, and adapting multi-photon
modalities. Here, we present our recent research studies on various advanced confocal fiber-optic imaging and sensing
approaches using the following novel confocal methods. First, we investigated an all-fiber-optic confocal interference
microscope approach using a low-coherence near-infrared (1310 nm) light source. A signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
enhancement of 3.38 dB compared to a reflection-mode confocal microscope was observed. The use of a low-coherence
light source reduced the interference effects between various optical components, and an all-fiber-optic, robust and
compact confocal setup could be designed. Second, we experimentally investigated a single-fiber confocal microscope
approach using a hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber. The single-fiber hollow-core structure reduced the back-reflection
by 85% which enhanced the SNR. The measured lateral resolution was as high as or better than 0.78 μm when a 532-nm
laser source was used. Third, we explored a novel upconversion confocal microscope approach utilizing a continuous-wave
near-infrared (1550 nm) pump light source. An Erbium-doped glass powder was used as an upconversion phosphor
medium that emits an upconverted signal at 660 nm. Using this upconversion fiber-optic confocal microscope method,
high resolution images with a lateral resolution close to theoretical limits were obtained.
We have analyzed the temperature-dependent birefringence of a polarization-maintaining photonic crystal fiber. The temperature-coefficient of birefringence, dB/dT, for a commercially available polarization-maintaining photonic crystal fiber was found to be approximately −2.0×10−9 K−1. This is 35 times smaller than that of a standard polarization-maintaining fiber, which was approximately −7.0×10−8 K−1. Based on numerical analysis of the fiber structures, we determined that the temperature-dependence of the birefringence of the polarization-maintaining photonic crystal fiber is mainly due to a combination of temperature-dependent structure and index change. Due to thermal expansion of the silica, the photonic crystal structure of the fiber deforms, resulting in the shifting of the photonic band gap, which results in the birefringence change. Temperature-dependent refractive index change of the silica also causes a shift in the photonic band gap and thus a birefringence change. The numerically calculated dB/dT of the photonic crystal fiber was found to be approximately (−4±2)×10−9 K−1, and is in excellent agreement with the experimental results.
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