We report on an integrable thin-film Fabry-Pérot type electro-optic modulator (EOM) centered around an electro-optically active so-called guest-host polymer. This polymer material contains novel synthesized chromophore molecules (C3), which are aligned by electro-poling inside an amorphous polycarbonate host-matrix. When integrated into our Fabry-Pérot cavity, the electro-optic activity of the poled material can be observed in the short wavelength near infrared spectral range (approximately 900 nm - 1070 nm). We derived a value of ~220 pm/V for its linear electro-optic coefficient at 988 nm from spectral transmission measurements with increasing direct voltages applied to the EOM. The resulting half-wave voltage-length product of the EOM setup is 0.25 Vcm. As an exemplary functional test, we demonstrated an intensity modulation of a 974 nm diode laser by applying ± 11.5 V alternating voltage to the EOM. Due to the all thin-film realization of the EOM setup, it is compatible to the substrate free, miniaturized interference filter fabrication method. With this method, thin-film elements with edge lengths between 25 μm and 2 mm can be fabricated. In combination with the demonstrated low drive voltage, these compact EOM filters are excellent candidates for hybrid integration into photonic platforms, as shown in this contribution.
With the recent advances in photonic integrated circuits and their use as sensor platforms, the requirements for environmental temperature stability are increasing. Substrate free miniaturized thin film filters, used for spectral filtering, multiplexing, and demultiplexing, are affected by this requirement. Therefore, we investigate the thermal behavior of optical thin films fabricated by IBS and compare coatings on glass substrates to our substrate free miniaturized integrable alternative. We determined the relative change in optical thickness for various materials during spectral transmission measurements under sample temperature variation. Additionally, we adapted a thin film simulation software to estimate the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and thermo-optic coefficient of the materials. Since the thermal behavior of coatings is influenced by thermal expansion of the underlying substrate, we also measured the thermal behavior of simultaneously fabricated substrate free miniaturized filter elements. Comparing these results allows to pre estimate the thermal stability of the filter elements.
This paper presents the active alignment of miniaturized, substrate-free optical thin-film filters (TFFs) according to the filters’ spectral transfer properties for integration into fiber optical networks. Optical TFFs are often designed for a specific narrow angle of incidence (AOI) range. Hence, a sufficient manufacturing precision of the angled photonic components connected to the optical filter is needed. These components then can no longer be used for different scenarios where i.e. the incident angle is changed. Conversely, the individual miniaturized optical filter chips can also vary in specification due to slight inhomogeneities during the production on a largescale wafer. Therefore, not all filter chips on the wafer meet the demanded specifications at the designed AOI, resulting in a reduced yield. Moreover, it requires a time-consuming separation into different quality classes by measuring single filter chips on the wafer. To maximize the amount of usable chips, a procedure was developed to actively align the chips inside a precision optics assembly system by measuring the transmitted power at different wavelengths while tilting them towards the optical axis. When the optimal angle is found, the chip is glued into the optical network platform. Next to maximizing the yield, the production steps can be reduced because the prior separation into quality classes becomes redundant. Manufacturing tolerances during the thinfilm deposition are equalized due to the active spectral alignment on a universal optical platform. With this technique, a more versatile process for TFF integration compared to passively aligned assemblies on fixed angle components is demonstrated.
Atomic layer deposition (ALD) has been proven as an excellent method for coating high quality optical films due to its outstanding film quality and precise process control. Unfortunately, batch ALD requires time-consuming purge steps, which lead to low deposition rates and highly time-intensive processes for complex multilayer coatings. Recently, rotary ALD came in focus for optical applications. In this novel process concept, each process step takes place in a separate part of the reactor divided by pressure and nitrogen curtains. The substrates to-be-coated are rotated through these zones. During each rotation, an ALD cycle is completed, thus the deposition rate is mainly dependent on the rotation speed. In this study, the performance of a novel rotary ALD coating tool for optical applications is investigated and characterized with SiO2 and Ta2O5 layers. Low absorption levels of 3.1 ppm for 200 nm thick single layer of Ta2O5 and 6.0 ppm for 1032 nm thick single layer of SiO2 are demonstrated at 1064 nm, respectively, with growth rates up to 0.18 nm/s on fused silica substrates. Furthermore, excellent uniformity is also demonstrated with non-uniformity values reaching as low as 1.55 % and 2.71% for Ta2O5 and SiO2, respectively, over 120 mm on silicon wafers. Seven substrates up to a diameter of 200 mm can be coated in each run. Further investigations on uniformity improvements and multilayer coatings are currently ongoing.
While glass is an ideal material for optics, only a few microprocessing technologies are available. These technologies are usually limited regarding precision and freedom of design. A novel glass micromachining process is Laser Induced Deep Etching (LIDE). Without generating micro-cracks, introducing stress or other damages, it offers the possibility to precisely machine many types of glass. A broad range of features such as high-aspect ratio through holes, cutouts and slits in glass are available. In this work, LIDE is used to produce glass carrier substrates for integrated optical systems. Due to transmission characteristics and refractive index, the glass can be used as optical cladding for integrated polymer optical waveguides (refractive indices < 1.45). Cavities in glass, which can have different cross-sections e.g. u- or v-shaped, are filled with photoactive material by a doctor blade and function as an optical waveguide core. An additional approach examined in this work is the integration of optical fiber into v-shaped cavities. The system uses bare die laser diodes as transmitters and photo diodes as receivers bonded in front of the waveguide. LIDE technology allows to passively align the manufactured optical waveguide in front of the light source and detector due to mechanical features in the carrier substrate itself, eliminating the need for time-consuming and complex active alignment processes. This paper shows geometrical characteristics of waveguides and cavities, with a particular focus on surface roughness and subsequent filling ratio of the optical waveguide. Furthermore, the relative intensity distribution in the waveguide is presented and analyzed.
Printing of optical waveguides is an approach to large-volume implementation of optical data transmission in conventional electronic systems. Flexographic printing can be used to apply optical waveguides with circular-segment cross-sections to planar substrates. In this work, a concept for integrating printed optical waveguides into printed circuit boards (PCBs) is investigated, taking the requirements of industrial processing into account. A planar waveguide structure model is defined that is applicable to lamination processes used in PCB manufacturing. Due to thermal stress on the substrate during this process, polymer waveguides are printed on polyimide (PI) substrate. To ensure optical functionality, matching refractive indices in the form of printed cladding structures are required. Manufacturing multilayer waveguide structures requires new processes for generating the end facets of the waveguide core. To reduce the attenuation caused by optical coupling, one primary requirement is low facet roughness. In this paper, we present a way to flexographic print fully cladded waveguides on PI substrates. Different waveguide layer compositions are characterized with respect to their geometry by confocal measurements. Milling with monocrystalline diamond cutters is presented as a method for preparing the end facets. Finally, the attenuation of the prepared waveguides is measured and discussed as a function of the waveguide and end facet properties. By this, flexographic printed and ready-to-integrate waveguides are achieved, approaching the target of optical PCBs.
Printing polymer optical waveguides by means of combined printing processes has proven to be a challenging but effective way of producing waveguides with a loss less than 0.3dB/cm. In order to evaluate the optical performance of the produced waveguides, optical simulations have been carried out. In this work we show the influence on the optical performance by simulating droplets and enclosures in multimode waveguides with a proprietary raytracing algorithm. Critical waveguide parameters such as width and height variation will be evaluated. Finally, experimentally achieved optical performance is presented and compared with the simulation result.
Transferring a defined amount of material can have many advantages. In this work, laser-generated microstructures are inserted in plain flexographic printing form material using a femtosecond laser to control the wetting behavior. The results are transferred to a printing form, which is functionalized by inserting these microstructures in the material transferring areas. In this paper, different structures and their effect on the printing results are investigated. Through functionalization of the printing form, not only can the transferred amount of material be adjusted, but also the cross section shape of the printing result. Further, after laser processing and printing, the printing form shows no relevant wear or chemical instabilities.
This paper analyzes an approach for additively manufacturing polymer optical waveguides. The production process includes flexographic printing of conditioning lines (5 μm height) on a substrate, which are used as guiding barriers in the subsequent printing of the optical core. The core is additively printed (up to 50 μm in height) with an aerosol jet printer, filling the gap between the conditioning lines. The conditioning lines do not only enhance the contact angle of the polymer, which results in a higher cross section of the waveguides, but also improve the straight edges of the printed waveguides. We show that the quality of the conditioning lines is directly correlated to the waviness of the waveguides. Consequently, the analyses of the waviness of the conditioning lines classifies the quality of the fabricated waveguides. However, the waviness of the waveguides can also be considered in optical simulations. In this paper we show how we derive a waveguide model with waviness by fitting a single sine function onto the topological data of the conditioning lines. With this model a variation of the waviness can easily be simulated and goals for fabrication can be set. With the simulations it is possible to verify that the measured waviness (period of 559.5 μm and an amplitude of 4.99 μm) does not affect the optical quality of the waveguides.
One of today’s megatrends in the industrial environment is additive manufacturing. Faster prototyping, customized products like hearing devices, integrated functions like heatsinks and many other opportunities are offered by this technological development. The opportunity of using different materials and build up 3-D structures is virtually infinite. Another one is the digitalization of almost any product to build up a smart world. This trend leads to a tremendously rising amount of data to be transferred from one place to another. If a wireless transmission is not possible and if the distance is over 100 m glass fiber is the fastest and most secure way for these requirements. In case of most short-range applications up to 100 m primary copper cables or circuit paths are in use because the electrical data transfer is well known. The limited bandwidth of copper asks for new inventions to meet the demands of tomorrow. Regarding both megatrends, the solution for this upcoming bottleneck could be 3-D printed photonic packages. This paper shows a new and innovative way for the customized fabricating of short-range data transmission networks. By Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP) the so called polymer optical waveguides (POW), it is possible to build up 3-D printed light guiding structures with low attenuation on almost any three-dimensional surface. The main advantages of the here presented research are high flexibility, low weight and low costs. After three years of intensive studies the most important key facts (machine settings, geometry, performance) are summarized in this publication.
Considering the increasing amount of data for communication and infotainment applications, fabrication of optical networks and bus systems is a challenging task for production engineering. A two-step manufacturing process for polymer optical waveguides is presented. By improving the highly efficient flexographic printing technology by laser functionalization of the printing tool in combination with a subsequent spray application, high-quality waveguides are accomplished. By adjusting the resulting surface energy of the foil substrate in the first fabrication process, the spray application achieved high-aspect ratio waveguides with a low attenuation of 0.2 dB/cm at 850 nm.
Optical data communication is increasingly interesting for many applications in industrial processes. Therefore mass production is required to meet the requested price and lot sizes. Polymer optical waveguides show great promises to comply with price requirements while providing sufficient optical quality for short range data transmission. A high efficient fabrication technology using polymer materials could be able to create the essential backbone for 3D-optical data transmission in the future. The approach for high efficient fabrication technology of micro optics described in this paper is based on a self-assembly effect of fluids on preconditioned 3D-thermoformed polymer foils. Adjusting the surface energy on certain areas on the flexible substrate by flexographic printing mechanism is presented in this paper. With this technique conditioning lines made of silicone containing UV-varnish are printed on top of the foils and create gaps with the exposed substrate material in between. Subsequent fabrication processes are selected whether the preconditioned foil is coated with acrylate containing waveguide material prior or after the thermoforming process. Due to the different surface energy this material tends to dewet from the conditioning lines. It acts like regional barriers and sets the width of the arising waveguides. With this fabrication technology it is possible to produce multiple waveguides with a single coating process. The relevant printing process parameters that affect the quality of the generated waveguides are discussed and results of the produced waveguides with width ranging from 10 to 300 μm are shown.
The optical data transfer is considered as the future of signal transfer due to its various advantages compared to conventional copper-based technologies. The Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP) technology offers the opportunity to print materials with high viscosities, such as liquid transparent polymer adhesives (epoxy resins), on almost any possible substrate material and even in third dimension. This paper introduces a new flexible and comparatively cost-effective way of generating polymer optical waveguides through AJP. Furthermore, the conditioning of the substrate material and the printing process of planar waveguides are presented. In the first step, two lines with hydrophobic behavior are applied on foil material (PMMA, PVC, PI) by using a flexographic printing machine. These silicone based patterns containing functional polymer form barriers for the core material due to their low surface energy after curing. In the second step, the core material (liquid polymer, varnish) is printed between the barrier lines. Because of the hydrophobic behavior of the lines, the contact angle between the substrate surface and the liquid core material is increased which yields to higher aspect ratio. The distance between the barrier lines is at least 100 μm, which defines the width of the waveguide. The minimum height of the core shall be 50 μm. After UV-curing of the core polymer, the cladding material is printed on the top. This is also applied by using the AJP technology. Various tests were performed to achieve the optimal surface properties for adequate adhesion and machine process parameters.
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