Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a
fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in
the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable
advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a
reconfigurable mask.
Previously reported work focused on realising a 2x2cm single chip mask in the mid-IR based on polysilicon micro-optoelectro-
mechanical systems (MOEMS) technology and its integration with ASIC drive electronics using conventional
wire bonding. It employs interference effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric
Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an applied voltage and uses a hysteretic row/column scheme for addressing.
In this paper we report on the latest results in the mid-IR for the single chip reconfigurable MOEMS mask, trials in
scaling up to a mask based on a 2x2 multi-chip array and report on progress towards realising a large format mask
comprising 44 MOEMS chips. We also explore the potential of such large, transmissive IR spatial light modulator arrays
for other applications and in the current and alternative architectures.
We report on a laser communications experiment over a kilometre optical range where we have used a retro-reflective
transponder incorporating an optical modulator based on silicon micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) device. This
employs interference to provide modulation and relies on performing as a coherent array to modulate incident light in the
near-IR band (1550nm) over a wide angular range (120 degrees). Modulation is achieved by tuning a large array of
Fabry-Perot cavities via the application of an electrostatic force to adjust the gap between a moveable mirror and the
underlying silicon substrate.
The micro-mirrors have a strong mechanical resonance, and modulate light by adjusting the spacing between the micromirrors
and the substrate. We use a 'release and catch' technique to exploit the mechanical resonance, and we time the
motion of the micro-mirrors to be synchronised with the arrival of an interrogator pulse to ensure that the etalon spacing
provides the required modulation, whatever the angle of incidence.
We describe experiments over a one kilometre path where simple strings were sent at 200kbit per second. We also
discuss approaches to adapting the link to a given angle of incidence.
Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a
fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in
the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable
advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a
reconfigurable mask.
Previously we reported on the realization of a 2x2cm single chip mask in the mid-IR based on polysilicon micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) technology and its integration with ASIC drive electronics using conventional
wire bonding. The MOEMS architecture employs interference effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a
large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an applied voltage and uses a hysteretic row/column scheme
for addressing.
In this paper we present the latest transmission results in the mid-IR band (3-5μm) and report on progress in developing
a scalable architecture based on a tiled approach using multiple 2 x 2cm MOEMS chips with associated control ASICs
integrated using flip chip technology. Initial work has focused on a 2 x 2 tiled array as a stepping stone towards an 8 x 8
array.
The development of a micro-opto-electro-mechanical system (MOEMS) technology employing interference effects to
modulate incident light in the near-IR band (1550nm) over a wide angular range (120 degrees) is reported. Modulation is
achieved by tuning a large array of Fabry-Perot cavities via the application of an electrostatic force to adjust the gap
between a moveable mirror and the underlying silicon substrate.
The optical design determines the layer thicknesses; however, the speed and power are determined by the geometry of
the individual moveable elements. Electro-mechanical trade-offs will be presented as well as a key innovation of
utilising overshoot in the device response in reduced pressure environment to reduce the drive voltage.
Devices have been manufactured in a modified polysilicon surface micromachining process with anti-reflection coatings
on the back of the silicon substrate. Measurements of individual mirror elements and arrays of mirrors at 1550nm show
excellent uniformity across the array. This enables good response to an incident signal over a wide field of view when
integrated with a silicon retroreflector in a passive optical tag. In conjunction with appropriate anti-stiction coatings,
lifetimes of over 100 million cycles have been demonstrated.
Key advantages of the modulator are that it is low cost being based on standard polysilicon micromachining; high speed
(>100kHz) and robust due to utilising a massively parallel array of identical compact devices; low power for portable
applications; and operates in transmission - allowing simple integration with a retroreflector in a passive tag for halfduplex
free-space optical communications to a remote interrogator.
Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a
fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in
the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable
advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a
reconfigurable mask.
Previously we reported on the early feasibility of realising such a mask based on polysilicon micr-opto-electromechanical
systems (MOEMS) technology and early results in the visible and near IR bands. This employs interference
effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an
applied voltage whilst a hysteretic row/column addressing scheme is used to control the state of individual elements.
In this paper we present transmission results from the target mid-IR band (3-5μm), compare them with theory and
describe the scale up from a 3x3 proof-of-concept MOEMS microshutter array to a 560 x 560 element array (2cm x 2cm
chip) with the associated driver electronics and embedded control - including aspects of electronic design, addressing
control and integration. The resultant microsystem represents a core building block to realise much larger reconfigurable
masks using a tiled approach with further integration challenges in the future.
Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations use a
fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. More recent applications have
emerged in the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems. System studies have shown that
considerable advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a reconfigurable mask.
We report on work to develop a novel, reconfigurable mask based on micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS)
technology employing interference effects to modulate incident light in the mid-IR band (3-5μm). This is achieved by
tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot cavities by applying an electrostatic force to adjust the gap between a
moveable upper polysilicon mirror plate supported on suspensions and underlying fixed (electrode) layers on a silicon
substrate.
A key advantage of the modulator technology developed is that it is transmissive and high speed (e.g. 100kHz) - allowing simpler imaging system configurations. It is also realised using a modified standard polysilicon surface
micromachining process (i.e. MUMPS-like) that is widely available and hence should have a low production cost in
volume. We have developed designs capable of operating across the entire mid-IR band with peak transmissions
approaching 100% and high contrast. By using a pixelated array of small mirrors, a large area device comprising
individually addressable elements may be realised that allows reconfiguring of the whole mask at speeds in excess of
video frame rates.
The addition of small amounts of nitrogen to III-V semiconductors leads to a large degree of band-gap bowing, giving rise to band-gaps smaller than in the associated binary materials. The addition of a small percentage of nitrogen to GaSb or InSb is predicted to move their response wavelengths into the long or even very long wavelength IR ranges. We report the growth of GaNxSb1-x by MBE, using an r.f. plasma nitrogen source, examining the influence of plasma power, substrate temperature and growth rate. We demonstrate high structural quality, as determined by x-ray diffraction, and show a reduction in band-gap by over 300meV, compared with GaSb, based on FTIR transmission spectroscopy. We also report initial experiments on the growth of InNxSb1-x and Ga1-yInyNxSb1-x, with a view to extending the response into the long and very long wavelength IR ranges.
A summary is presented of some of the design criteria relevant to the realisation of silicon micromachined modulator arrays for use in free-space optical communication systems. Theoretical performance levels achievable are compared with values measured on experimental devices produced using a modified Multi-User MEMS Process (MUMPS). Devices capable of realising modulation rates in excess of 300 kHz are described and their optical characteristics compared with published data on devices based on multiple quantum well technology.
Using deep-dry etching techniques it is possible to realise filters for use in optical telecommunication based on silicon/air cavities with a high degree of finesse, and which are oriented substantially perpendicular to the surface of the silicon substrate. This geometry is well suited to their incorporation in hollow-waveguides or within ridge waveguide structures. The optical characteristics of such devices are determined by a number of factors, including the designs of the optical cavities and the degree of surface perfection achievable by the deep-dry etching process.
Significant advances have been made in the area of reactive sputtering to accommodate industry requirements for high performance coatings. A review is presented of progress in the field, highlighting the results of studies of specific films produced by various techniques. Ion beam sputtering, originally exploited for producing laser gyro coatings, has become one of the standard methods of producing narrow band filters for dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) in the telecommunications industry. More recently, other techniques have also emerged exploiting advances made in the opto-electronics industry, notably high-density remote plasma techniques. It has been found that no process is able to generate films that are entirely free of defects, but significant differences occur in the geometrical form of the defects produced. Some are suggestive of the role that vapor-liquid-solid growth mechanisms may play in their formation.
A summary is presented of some of the issues facing the developers of tunable filters for use in optical communication systems, including those exploiting acousto- optic, thermo-optic and electro-optic effects. The potential of electromechanically tuned variants is also assessed in relation to devices micromachined from silicon. Emphasis is given to electro-optically tuned devices, with experimental data presented for an example based on a nanophase polymer dispersed liquid crystal composite.
Nano-phase polymer dispersed liquid crystal composites (n-PDLCs) have shown significant potential for use as in voltage tunable optical devices. In such composites, the dimensional scale of the liquid crystal droplets is such that optical scattering effects can be minimised in the visible and near infrared spectrum. The nanoscopic scale also allows the material to be described as a single homogeneous medium using effective medium approximations. The average refractive index of the material can be changed as electric field is applied and it is possible to effect spectral shifts in transmission bands when the material is incorporated into resonant filter structures. The paper summarises recent developments in such composite materials emphasizing the role of different co-polymer formulations for the matrix phase, and the useof different surfactant species to reduce the effects of pinning of the liquid crystal molecules at the droplet walls.
High resolution X-ray topography and diffraction measurements have been made at the Daresbury Synchrotron Radiation Source during in-situ molecular beam epitaxial growth of InGaAs on GaAs. Critical analysis of dislocation contrast, intensity and geometrical distortion reveals that use of the 224 reflection in the Bragg geometry at 1.48 Angstrom wavelength is optimal for such double crystal topography experiments. Examination of the beam-conditioner characteristics and performance had resulted in use of the 333 reflection from a channel-cut silicon crystal as a monochromator. We deduce and show experimentally that a 004 channel-cut monochromator is optimal, resulting in significant reduction in exposure times. We present images of misfit dislocations showing evidence for the first time of phase contrast from lattice distortions.
A new concept for optical signal transmission and amplification has been demonstrated. By connecting the lasers of an integrated array in series, rather than the usual parallel connection, significant quantum gain has been achieved. The forward voltage, dynamic resistance and external incremental slope efficiency of the array are simply the sum of the characteristics of the individual laser elements. However, the threshold current is the same as that of a single laser, thus avoiding the very high threshold currents found for parallel laser arrays. By choosing the appropriate number of laser elements the dynamic resistance of the array can be made to equal 50 Ohms giving an intrinsic broadband match for RF modulation without needing any additional resistors or impedance matching circuitry. Thus we demonstrate a ten element AlGaAs laser array with a forward voltage of 15 Volts, a broadband (DC to 500 MHz) impedance of 50 Ohms and a slope efficiency of 4.97 W/A per facet. In combination with a photodiode this forms an optically coupled transistor with a current gain of 3 dB. Such laser arrays can be used in low loss fiber optic links where the increased quantum efficiency compensates for losses within the system, and broadband insertion gain is potentially feasible.
We demonstrate a sixteen channel, GaAs/AlGaAs staring spectrum analyzer device based on a phased-array of sixteen electro-optic waveguide delay lines. The device is effectively a high resolution version of the widely reported optical wavelength division multiplexer phased-array devices, using electro-optic waveguides to adjust the optical phases across the array. The device comprises: a 1- to-16 way multimode interference coupler; 16 electro-optic phase controllers; 16 folded waveguide delay lines, from 0 to 1 nanosecond in equal steps; and a waveguide phased array output. By making use of novel waveguide and corner designs we demonstrate the device as a spectrum analyzer, the RF signal to be analyzed was superimposed on an optical carrier using a GaAs/AlGaAs electro-optic waveguide push-pull Mach Zehnder interferometer, and the intensity modulated light was then passed through the phased-array chip. The spectrum of the RF input signal was displayed in the far field of the phased-array as diffraction lines on either side of the main diffraction lines. By biasing the modulator to extinction, the CW carrier could be removed from the far field diffraction pattern so that only the RF spectrum was displayed. In this presentation we describe the device design, fabrication and testing including measurements of the dynamic range and resolution.
Nanostructures based on III-V semiconductor materials have reached a status which enables basic physical studies on size effects in device and in nanostructures. The expected benefits of high modulation bandwidth, low laser threshold, and improved linewidth enhancement factor in DFB lasers, to say only a few, which are believed to be based mainly on the changed density of states (DOS) function in low dimensions might be counterbalanced by altered carrier energy relaxation and k-space filling in those structures. To investigate systematically size effects and device aspects, a continuous change of structure and active device size is needed from 2D to 0D dimensions. This requirement can be met by high resolution electron beam lithography in conjunction with low damage etch processes and epitaxial overgrowth. In this presentation we discuss the technology and design considerations of lasers with low dimensional active regions as well as DOS effects and device relevant carrier relaxation effects. The technology part will focus especially on low damage etch processes such as RIE- ECR. Nearly damage free structuring processes can be demonstrated. Based on this low damage dry etch process we obtained electrically pumped wire DFB lasers with relatively high output power (up to 6 mW) and operation temperature (60 degrees C). Time resolved optical ps-spectroscopy as well as high excitation spectroscopy on wire and dot nanostructures demonstrate strongly changed k-space filling and carrier relaxation mechanisms in low dimensions and represent a serious limitation of device speed. Results obtained from electrically pumped wire DFB lasers confirm the carrier relaxation and k-space filling effects in device structures which have been observed by optical pump experiments in nanostructures. Despite the band filling effects in low dimensional structures, the wire DFB lasers show clearly the expected feature of gain coupling and enhanced differential gain which might demonstrate the applicability of mesoscopic laser devices in common data communication approaches.
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