Recent studies suggest that cavitation effect following laser induced vapor bubble collapse is more dominant than the photothermal effect in stone ablation during laser lithotripsy. Our research aims to introduce an experimental study design that precisely measures each effect's contribution using gypsum phantom stones. To isolate the cavitation-only mechanism after the collapse of the laser-induced vapor bubble, a phantom stone was submerged in a dye solution. The dye solution absorbed all laser light, generating cavitation, with additional experiments confirming the absence of any photothermal effect when the dye was not used. The fiber was positioned both parallel to the stone surface and perpendicular at a 1mm distance, exposing it solely to cavitation. In another set of experiments, a phantom stone was submerged in water and 2μm light from a thulium yttrium aluminum garnet (Tm:YAG) laser was delivered via the same optical fiber positioned (this time) perpendicular to the stone surface. In this case, both optical absorption and cavitation effect from laser-induced vapor bubble collapses were observed but the measured pressure transients showed significantly lower peak pressures compared to the first set. In a final set of experiments, these conditions remained constant, except the fiber was positioned parallel to the stone surface, once again exposing it to only the cavitation from the collapse of the laser induced vapor bubble. Craters created by all methods were imaged using an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. Measured volumes showed that stone ablation was dominated by photo-thermal, and not by cavitation from the vapor bubble collapse. In fact, in two of the three trials of stone experiments (n=5, each trial) that were subjected to cavitation-only, there was no observable ablation. One trial produced an average volume that was 50% smaller than the average resulting from a single photo-thermal-only case (p = 0.0022 < 0.05). Our results suggest that finetuning of lithotripsy procedures with focus on energy transmission to the stone can provide optimal results.
Lasers are commonly employed in surgery for hard and soft tissues due to their precise space-time energy delivery and compatibility with optical fibers for delivery into body cavities, including for treatment of urological diseases. Infrared laser ablation in tissues can result in non-specific heating and thermal injury. Methods that maximize ablation efficiency, or tissue volume removed per unit energy, while minimizing non-specific thermal injury can improve surgical workflows and outcomes. We report a novel approach for increased ablation efficiency by modifying the beam shape. Specifically, a Ho:YAG laser is shaped into a converging annular beam. Ablation efficiency was measured on a hard tissue phantom (BegoStone) and soft tissue (porcine kidney). An annular beam ~800 μm in diameter was used to ablate each sample at 10 different locations using a single 1 J pulse per location. The procedure was repeated using a circular beam with similar diameter by placing a 200 μm fiber 1 mm from the tissue surface. Each ablation crater was imaged with optical coherence tomography and the crater volumes calculated from recorded images. For hard tissue phantoms, ablation efficiency increased 183% for annular vs. circular beams (0.065±0.013 vs. 0.023 ± 0.003 mm3 /J). For soft tissue, ablation efficiency increased 69% for annular vs. circular beams (0.098±0.021 vs 0.058 ± 0.018 mm3 /J). Hard and soft tissue ablation with an annular beam is a promising technique for increasing the speed and safety of laser surgery.
OBJECTIVES: We tested the hypothesis that retropulsion varies with stone size.
METHODS: Stone phantoms of uniform cube dimensions were constructed and irradiated with Ho:YAG energy (0.5 J - 3.5 J). Displacement was measured.
RESULTS: At any given pulse energy, retropulsion decreased as stone size increased, p<0.05. At any given stone size, retropulsion increased as pulse energy increased, p<0.05.
CONCLUSIONS: A strategy of low pulse energy at high repetition rate is appropriate for ureteral stones. For larger bladder and renal stones, retropulsion is minimal even with high pulse energies. More study is warranted.
Holmium:YAG laser lithotripsy is effective for all stone compositions. However, stone retropulsion is
a big concern during laser ablation. The use of metal based anti-retropulsion devices reduces stone
retropulsion during laser treatment. However, Ho:YAG laser can also ablate metal based antiretropulsion
devices such as metal basket or metal wires and cause the failure of anti-retropulsion
device. BackStop is a novel reverse thermosensitive polymer-based anti-retropulsion device.
Response of Backstop polymer to pulsed Ho:YAG radiation is unknown, but predicted to withstand
energy better than metal based anti-retropulsion devices since BackStop retains a solid form at
increased temperature. Further, a solid shape, form, and function should not be compromised even
if an ablation crater may be created. This study tests the ability of BackStop polymer to withstand
shape and function in response to Ho:YAG laser energy at various pulse energies. Laser polymer
interaction is characterized using fast flash imaging technique and pressure transient measurement.
Introduction: Prior research shows that Ho:YAG lithotripsy produces tiny dust fragments at low pulse
energy (0.2J). However, calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) stones may not fragment at this low pulse
energy setting. Stone composition is rarely known until after surgery and historically, attempts to predict
stone composition on the basis of endoscopic stone appearance were unsuccessful. Current endoscopic
technology permits visual details that previously were not evident. As COM appears black under ambient
light, we attempt to predict COM stone composition at the time of ureteroscopy based on its endoscopic
appearance.
Methods: Consecutive subjects undergoing ureteroscopy for stone disease were studied. Any portion of the
stone that appeared black under endoscopic vision was considered clinical evidence of COM. Predicted
stone composition was correlated with post-operative calculus analysis.
Results: 46 consecutive ureteroscopic stone cases were analyzed prospectively. 25 of 28 subjects (89%)
with black stones had stones later proven to be COM by composition analysis, versus one of 18 patients
(6%) with non-black stones that were COM (p<0.0001). A black endoscopic stone appearance had a
positive predictive value for COM of 89% and a non-black endoscopic stone appearance had a negative
predictive value for COM of 94% (sensitivity 96%, specificity 83%).
Conclusions: COM may reasonably be predicted intra-operatively by its black endoscopic appearance. The
clinical utility would be to use higher laser pulse energy settings than for non-COM compositions. This
data raises the possibility that more sophisticated optical characterization of endoscopic stone appearance
may prove to be a useful tool to predict stone composition.
The holmium:yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser is the gold standard laser for intracorporeal lithotripsy.1 Optical fibers are utilized to transmit laser energy to the surface of a stone for fragmentation via a predominant photothermal mechanism.2 Previous work has demonstrated that performance characteristics of holmium:YAG optical fibers used for laser lithotripsy varies. Performance may difference not only between fibers made by different manufacturers but also between individual fibers produced by the same manufacturer.3,4 Fiber failure with bending, such as during lower pole ureterorenoscopy, can lead to catastrophic endoscope damage resulting in costly repair.
Manufacturers continue to develop new holmium:YAG optical fibers. In this study we evaluate a series of newly commercially available fibers using a previously designed testing protocol. This study was designed to determine the performance and threshold for failure of six newly available holmium:YAG laser fibers from Cook Medical and
Fibertech Gmbh. We hypothesize that fiber performance will continue to vary amongst different holmium:YAG optical fibers.
Light emitted from a femtosecond laser is capable of plasma-induced ablation of various materials. We tested the feasibility of utilizing femtosecond-pulsed laser radiation (λ=800 nm, 140 fs, 0.9 mJ/pulse) for ablation of urinary calculi. Ablation craters were observed in human calculi of greater than 90% calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM), cystine (CYST), or magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate (MAPH). Largest crater volumes were achieved on CYST stones, among the most difficult stones to fragment using Holmium:YAG (Ho:YAG) lithotripsy. Diameter of debris was characterized using optical microscopy and found to be less than 20 µm, substantially smaller than that produced by long-pulsed Ho:YAG ablation. Stone retropulsion, monitored by a high-speed camera system with a spatial resolution of 15 µm, was negligible for stones with mass as small as 0.06 g. Peak shock wave pressures were less than 2 bars, measured by a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) needle hydrophone. Ablation dynamics were visualized and characterized with pump-probe imaging and fast flash photography and correlated to shock wave pressures. Because femtosecond-pulsed laser ablates urinary calculi of soft and hard compositions, with micron-sized debris, negligible stone retropulsion, and small shock wave pressures, we conclude that the approach is a promising candidate technique for lithotripsy.
Pulsed light emitted from a near infrared (λ=800nm) femtosecond laser is capable of plasma induced photodisruption of
various materials. We used femtosecond laser pulses to ablate human urinary calculi. Femtosecond pulsed laser
interaction with urinary calculi was investigated with various stone compositions, different incident fluences and number
of applied pulses. Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography was used to image cross sections of ablation craters on
the surface of urinary calculi. Our results indicate that femtosecond laser pulses can ablate various calculi compositions.
Crater diameter and depth varies from tens of microns to several hundred microns when up to 1000 pulses were applied.
Future studies are required to determine if pulsed near infrared femtosecond laser pulses can be applied clinically for
lithotripsy of urinary calculi.
KEYWORDS: Stereolithography, Fiber lasers, Waveguides, Global system for mobile communications, Laser therapeutics, Optical fibers, Optics manufacturing, Cladding, Aluminum, Garnet
The holmium:yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser is the gold standard laser for intracorporeal lithotripsy.
Optical fibers are utilized to transmit laser energy to the surface of a stone for fragmentation. During
lithotripsy, fiber tip degradation (burn back) can occur. The exact mechanism for tip degradation and
related factors are not completely understood, and have not been investigated. This characteristic is
important because fiber burn back may affect diminish fragmentation efficiency, increase operative time,
and increase cost due to the need for fiber replacement. We hypothesize that fiber tip degradation (burn
back) varies amongst different commercially available holmium:YAG laser fibers.
This study tests the hypothesis that repeat steam sterilization will result in an increase in the rate of holmium:YAG laser fiber failure during bench testing in a series of commercially available single use and reusable small core sized (200-272 μm) holmium:YAG laser fibers. Single use and reusable small core-sized holmium laser fibers were tested. Single use fibers included the Dornier Lightguide Super 200, Dornier DUR Laser Fiber Single Use, Optical Integrity Scopesafe 272, IQinc. LLF200TG-D and LLF273TG-D, Boston Scientific AccuFlex 200 and AccuFlex 273, and Lumenis Slimline EZ 200. Reusable fibers included the Dornier DUR Laser Fiber Reusable, Lumenis Slimline 200, Sharplan 200, Laser Peripherals RBLF-200, IQinc. LFT273NT, and Convergent Optiview SMH1020F. A Lumenis VersaPulse 100 watt and a PowerSuite 20 watt holmium:YAG lasers were used. Fibers were bent to 180 degrees at a diameter of 1.5 cm. The laser was fired at 1.5J, 10Hz for 30 minutes or until fiber fracture. Reusable fibers were sterilized for a total of twenty cycles using the manufacturers' specifications and retested after every five completed cycles. No fiber fractured with bending alone. Two of three Dornier Super 200 single use fibers fractured repeatedly within several laser pulses. The Laser Peripherals RBLF-200 fiber fractured during initial but not repeat testing. One of three reusable Dornier DUR Laser Fibers failed during testing after the twentieth steam sterilization cycle. Five of five Boston Scientific Accuflex 200 failed at the SMA connector and did not couple well with the Lumenis Powersuite laser. The test hypothesis was not supported.
Stone retropulsion during Ho:YAG (λ = 2.12 μm) laser lithotripsy with various pulse
durations (τp: 250 ~ 495 μsec) was investigated. Depending on pulse energy, optical pulse
durations were divided into two regimes: short pulse (250~350 μsec) and long pulse (315~495
μsec). Retropulsion distance was measured as a function of pulse energy from 0.4 J to 1.2 J.
Calculus phantoms made from plaster of Paris were ablated with a free running Ho:YAG laser
using various optical fibers (200, 400, 600 μm) in water. In order to examine the ablation
efficiency of two different pulse durations, a single pulse was applied, and the dynamics of the
recoil action of a calculus phantom was monitored using a high-speed camera. The correlation
among laser-induced topography, ablation volume, and retropulsion was evaluated. Higher pulse
energy and larger fibers resulted in larger ablation volume and retropulsion. At a given pulse
energy, optical pulses with different durations yielded comparable ablation volumes. The
shorter duration pulses induced more retropulsion than longer pulses did at the same pulse
energy. Larger retropulsion with the shorter pulse is thought to be induced by higher
temperature at the vapor-solid interface, subsequently resulting in faster plume ejection with
higher recoil momentum. The results suggest that a longer pulse could minimize retropulsion of
the stone during lithotripsy.
We compared urinary calculus fragmentation with long pulsed Ho:YAG (λ= 2.12 μm) versus Er:YAG (λ = 2.94 μm) lasers. We measured the ablation width, depth, volume and efficiency as a function of pulse energy from calculus threshold energy to clinical energy typically used for Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy. Ablation effects were evaluated for three types of urinary calculi (calcium oxalate monohydrate, cystine, and uric acid), for single and multiple pulses applied at various optical energy levels. By means of comparing laser-induced crater topography and ablation volume for each stone type, the feasibility of Er:YAG laser lithotripsy was appraised. The Er:YAG laser pulse energy generated deeper and narrower crater shapes with relatively smooth contours whereas the Ho:YAG laser produced shallower and wider craters with irregular shapes. In terms of multiple pulses ablation, the Er:YAG produced larger ablation volume than Ho:YAG. The deeper crater induced by the Er:YAG was attributed to the higher absorption coefficient of stones at the 2.94 μm wavelength, and widening of crater by Ho:YAG was perhaps caused by lateral expansion of ablated material. Comparing the ablation efficiency, Er:YAG was superior to Ho:YAG for both single and five-pulses.
Previously we found that Ho:YAG laser (2120 nm) lithotripsy of uric acid stones produced cyanide, a known thermal breakdown product of uric acid. We now report that alloxan, another thermal breakdown product, is also likely produced. Uric acid stones (approximately 98% pure) of human origin were placed in distilled water and subjected to one of the following experimental treatments: unexposed control, exposed to Ho:YAG laser, Nd:YAG laser, or mechanically crushed. Samples were then processed for HPLC analysis with UV detection. Peaks were identified by comparison to authentic standards. All samples contained uric acid, with retention time (RT) about 6 min. All of the laser-exposed samples contained a peak that eluted at 2.5 min, identical to the RT of authentic alloxan. Ho:YAG laser irradiation, however, produced a larger presumed alloxan peak than did the Nd:YAG laser. The peak at 2.5 min, as well as unidentified later-eluting peaks, were present in the laser-exposed, but not the unexposed or mechanically crushed, samples. These results confirm the thermal nature of lithotripsy performed with long-pulse IR lasers.
The potential application of an Erbium:YAG (Er:YAG) laser (Qo equals 50 mJ/pulse; (tau) p equals 275 microsecond(s) ; rep. rate equals 2, 10 Hz) with a sapphire delivery fiber for intracorporeal laser lithotripsy was explored. Preliminary measurements on calculus mass-loss and fragmentation efficiency were conducted and results were compared with that of Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy. Laser induced bubble and lithotripsy dynamics were investigated to assess the mechanism(s) involved in the fragmentation process. Results showed that the fragmentation efficiency (mass-loss/Ho - g.micrometers 2/J) in Er:YAG laser lithotripsy was about 2.4 times that of Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy (used: Qo equals 500 mJ/pulse; (tau) p equals 250 microsecond(s) ; rep. rate equals 10 Hz). Acoustic transients were found to have minimal effect during Er:YAG laser lithotripsy. Schlieren flash images suggested a predominantly photothermal mechanism due to direct laser energy absorption, which resulted in recrystallization and plume formation. These events indicated melting and chemical decomposition of the calculus composition. Another observation led to the possibility of a plasma-mediated photothermal mechanism. The 'Moses effect' facilitating pulsed mid-infrared laser delivery appeared more efficient for the Er:YAG laser than for the Ho:YAG laser. With the sapphire fiber, experimental results suggested the potential of an improved treatment modality by the Er:YAG laser for intracorporeal laser lithotripsy.
Urinary calculi composed of struvite harbor urease-producing bacteria within the stone. The photothermal mechanism of holmium:YAG lithotripsy is uniquely different than other lithotripsy devices. We postulated that bacterial viability of struvite calculi would be less for calculi fragmented with holmium:YAG irradiation compared to other lithotripsy devices. Human calculi of known struvite composition (greater than 90% magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate) were incubated with Proteus mirabilis. Calculi were fragmented with no lithotripsy (controls), or shock wave, intracorporeal ultrasonic, electrohydraulic, pneumatic, holmium:YAG or pulsed dye laser lithotripsy. After lithotripsy, stone fragments were sonicated and specimens were serially plated for 48 hours at 38 C. Bacterial counts and the rate of bacterial sterilization were compared. Median bacterial counts (colony forming units per ml) were 8 X 106 in controls and 3 X 106 in shock wave, 3 X 107 in ultrasonic, 4 X 105 in electrohydraulic, 8 X 106 in pneumatic, 5 X 104 in holmium:YAG and 1 X 106 in pulsed dye laser lithotripsy, p less than 0.001. The rate of bacterial sterilization was 50% for holmium:YAG lithotripsy treated stones versus 0% for each of the other cohorts, p less than 0.01. P. mirabilis viability is less after holmium:YAG irradiation compared to other lithotripsy devices.
The objectives of this study were to determine if the optical absorption properties of urinary calculi affect the threshold fluence for ablation or fragmentation and the ablation efficiency due to laser irradiation. The Vanderbilt free electron laser was tuned to selected wavelengths based on the absorption spectrum of various types of urinary calculi. The threshold fluences for ablation of the calculi were measured at different wavelengths. A preliminary study of the ablation efficiency (ablation depth per unit incidence fluence) was performed. The results were fond to be in agreement with a thermal ablation model for which the threshold fluences were proportional to l/(mu) a. The ablation efficiencies were higher in regions of the infrared spectra in which absorption was higher. For a fixed laser irradiation, the lower threshold fluences within regions of high optical absorption allowed more energy to enhance calculus ablation. This study provided insight into determining the optimum wavelengths for ablation and laser lithotripsy.
Because of the >= 250 microsecond(s) pulsewidth emitted by the Ho:YAG laser used in clinical lithotripsy, it is unlikely that stress confinement occurs within the irradiated stones. Experimental data supports a thermal mechanism for Ho:YAG laser stone ablation. Previous work has shown that stone fragmentation occurs soon after the onset of the laser pulse, is uncorrelated to cavitation bubble formation or collapse, and is associated with low pressures. Moreover, lithotripsy proceeds fastest with desiccated stones in air (data based on laser ablation of calcium oxalate monohydrate stones), indicating that direct absorption of the laser radiation by the stone material is required for the most efficient ablation. Lowering the initial temperature of calculi reduces the stone mass-loss following 20 J of delivered laser energy: 2.2 +/- 1.1 mg vs 5.2 +/- 1.6 mg for calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) stones (-80 vs 23 degree(s)C), and 0.8 +/- 0.4 mg vs 2.2 +/- 1.1 mg for cystine stones (-80 vs 23 degree(s)C), p <EQ 0.5. In all of the stone compositions examined, thermal breakdown products have been detected, e.g. CaCO3 from COM; free sulfur and cysteine from cystine; Ca2O7P2 from calcium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate, and cyanide and alloxan from uric acid. All of these observations are most consistent with a photothermal breakdown process induced by Ho:YAG laser lithotripsy.
The mechanism of holmium:YAG lithotripsy is photothermal. Holmium:YAG lithotripsy of uric acid calculi produces cyanide, which is a known, thermal decomposition produce of uric acid. we review our experience with holmium:YAG lithotripsy of uric acid to determine if there is any clinical evidence of cyanide toxicity. A retrospective analysis of all of our cases of holmium:YAG lithotripsy of uric acid calculi was done. Anesthetic and postoperative data were reviewed. A total of 18 patients with uric acid calculi were tread with holmium:YAG lithotripsy by urethroscopy (5), retrograde nephroscopy (2), percutaneous nephrolithotomy (5) or cystolithotripsy (6). Total holmium:YAG irradiation ranged from 1.2 to 331 kJ. No patient had evidence of increased end-tidal carbon dioxide, change sin electrocardiogram or significant decrease in postoperative serum bicarbonate. An 84 year old woman had decreased diastolic pressure of 30 mm Hg while under general anesthesia. No cyanide related neurologic, cardiac or respiratory complications were noted. These data suggest no significant cyanide toxicity from holmium:YAG lithotripsy or uric acid calculi in typical clinical settings. More specific studies in animals are warranted to characterize the risk.
Because of the greater than or equal to 250 microsecond pulsewidth emitted by the Ho:YAG laser used in clinical lithotripsy, it is unlikely that stress confinement occurs within the irradiated stones. Experimental data supports a thermal mechanism for Ho:YAG laser stone ablation. Stone fragmentation occurs soon after the onset of the laser pulse, is uncorrelated to cavitation bubble formation or collapse, and is associated with low pressures (cf. part I). The mass- loss of desiccated calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) stones exposed to 150 J from the Ho:YAG laser in air was 40 plus or minus 12 mg (mean plus or minus 1 s.d.); for hydrated stones in air was 25 plus or minus 9 mg; and for hydrated stones in water was 17 plus or minus 3 mg, p less than .001. These differences indicate that direct absorption of the laser radiation by the stone is required for the most efficient ablation. Lowering the initial temperature of COM or cystine stones also reduced the stone mass-loss following 20 J of delivered laser energy: 2.2 plus or minus 1.1 mg vs 5.2 plus or minus 1.6 mg for COM stones (-80 vs 23 degrees Celsius), and 0.8 plus or minus 0.4 mg vs 2.2 plus or minus 1.1 mg for cystine stones (-80 vs 23 degrees Celsius), p less than or equal to .05. Finally, chemical analysis of the laser-induced stone fragments revealed the presence of thermal breakdown products: CaCO3 from COM; free sulfur and cysteine from cystine; Ca2O7P2 from calcium hydorgen phosphate dihydrate, and cyanide from uric acid.
The Ho:YAG laser commonly used for clinical lithotripsy of urinary stones typically emits 250-microsecond pulses at a wavelength of 2.12 micrometer and repetition rates of up to 10 Hz. This pulse duration is longer than the time required for a pressure wave to propagate beyond the optical penetration depth of this wavelength in water. Fast-flash photography was used to study the dynamics of urinary stone fragmentation by the Ho:YAG laser. Stone ablation began approximately 50 microseconds after the onset of the laser pulse, long before the collapse of the cavitation bubble at about 350 microseconds. Pressure measurements, made with a PVDF needle- hydrophone and correlated with the fast-flash images, indicated that the peak acoustical transient was less than 2 bars. Regardless of fiber orientation to the stone, no shockwaves were recorded at the beginning of the bubble, and the maximum pressure waves recorded at bubble collapse were approximately 20 bars. However, no fragmentation occurred during or subsequent to the bubble collapse. The measurements indicated that stone ablation was not due to a photomechanical effect.
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