SignificanceRevealing the dynamic associations between brain functions and behaviors is a significant challenge in neurotechnology, especially for awake subjects. Imaging cerebral hemodynamics in awake animal models is important because the collected data more realistically reflect human disease states.AimWe previously reported a miniature head-mounted scanning photoacoustic imaging (hmPAI) system. In the present study, we utilized this system to investigate the effects of ketamine on the cerebral hemodynamics of normal rats and rats subjected to prolonged ketamine self-administration.ApproachThe cortical superior sagittal sinus (SSS) was continuously monitored. The full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the photoacoustic (PA) A-line signal was used as an indicator of the SSS diameter, and the number of pixels in PA B-scan images was used to investigate changes in the cerebral blood volume (CBV).ResultsWe observed a significantly higher FWHM (blood vessel diameter) and CBV in normal rats injected with ketamine than in normal rats injected with saline. For rats subjected to prolonged ketamine self-administration, no significant changes in either the blood vessel diameter or CBV were observed.ConclusionsThe lack of significant change in prolonged ketamine-exposed rats was potentially due to an increased ketamine tolerance. Our device can reliably detect changes in the dilation of cortical blood vessels and the CBV. This study validates the utility of the developed hmPAI system in an awake, freely moving rat model for behavioral, cognitive, and preclinical cerebral disease studies.
Cathodal-transcranial direct current stimulation induces therapeutic effects in animal ischemia models by preventing the expansion of ischemic injury during the hyperacute phase of ischemia. However, its efficacy is limited by an accompanying decrease in cerebral blood flow. On the other hand, peripheral sensory stimulation can increase blood flow to specific brain areas resulting in rescue of neurovascular functions from ischemic damage. Therefore, the two modalities appear to complement each other to form an integrated treatment modality. Our results showed that hemodynamics was improved in a photothrombotic ischemia model, as cerebral blood volume and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2) recovered to 71% and 76% of the baseline values, respectively. Furthermore, neural activities, including somatosensory-evoked potentials (110% increase), the alpha-to-delta ratio (27% increase), and the (delta+theta)/(alpha+beta) ratio (27% decrease), were also restored. Infarct volume was reduced by 50% with a 2-fold preservation in the number of neurons and a 6-fold reduction in the number of active microglia in the infarct region compared with the untreated group. Grip strength was also better preserved (28% higher) compared with the untreated group. Overall, this nonpharmacological, nonintrusive approach could be prospectively developed into a clinical treatment modality.
Current treatments for ischemic stroke have focused on the administration of a tissue plasminogen activator, although the associated side effects and subsequent reperfusion injury remain challenging. Peripheral electrical stimulation has shed light on therapeutic interventions for ischemia by increasing cerebral blood flow (CBF) to the target region through collateral circulation, although the mechanism remains elusive. Here, a focal photothrombotic ischemic (PTI) stroke was induced in the right hemispheric primary somatosensory forelimb cortex (S1FL) of rat brains, and the therapeutic effects of forelimb and hindlimb stimulation were characterized at the contralesional S1FL. We observed that PTI stroke rats that received forelimb stimulation exhibited significantly restored CBF of the ischemic penumbra (1.06±0.25 for the S1FL and 0.99±0.14 for the primary somatosensory hindlimb cortex, respectively), electrocorticography (ECoG) delta band coherence of the intercortical S1FL (0.93±0.04) at the 75th min poststroke and an ischemic infarct (7.3±0.2 mm3) via collateral circulation recruitment. Importantly, anterior cerebral artery/middle cerebral artery (ACA–MCA) interarterial anastomotic regulation occurred upon forelimb stimulation and played roles in the recovery of neurovascular functions. These results indicated that receptive field-specific stimulation further restores CBF, neuronal activities, and tissue viability through the enhancement of ACA–MCA interarterial anastomosis-mediated collateral circulation and provides a feasible therapeutic intervention for stroke recovery.
KEYWORDS: Imaging systems, Ischemia, Real time imaging, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Brain, Hemodynamics, In vivo imaging, Point spread functions, Lead, Blood vessels
Stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Rapid and precise diagnosis is essential to expedite clinical
decision and improve functional outcomes in stroke patients; therefore, real-time imaging plays an important role to
provide crucial information for post-stroke recovery analysis. In this study, based on the multi-wavelength laser and 18.5
MHz array-based ultrasound platform, a real-time handheld photoacoustic (PA) system was developed to evaluate
cerebrovascular functions pre- and post-stroke in rats. Using this system, hemodynamic information such as cerebral
blood volume (CBV) can be acquired for assessment. One rat stroke model (i.e., photothrombotic ischemia (PTI)) was
employed for evaluating the effect of local ischemia. For achieving better intrinsic PA contrast, Vantage and COMSOL
simulations were applied to optimize the light delivery (e.g., interval between two arms) from customized fiber bundle,
while phantom experiment was conducted to evaluate the imaging performance of this system. Results of phantom
experiment showed that hairs (~150 μm diameter) and pencil lead (500 μm diameter) can be imaged clearly. On the
other hand, results of in vivo experiments also demonstrated that stroke symptoms can be observed in PTI model poststroke.
In the near future, with the help of PA specific contrast agent, the system would be able to achieve blood-brain
barrier leakage imaging post-stroke. Overall, the real-time handheld PA system holds great potential in disease models
involving impairments in cerebrovascular functions.
Restoring perfusion to the penumbra during the hyperacute phase of ischemic stroke is a key goal of neuroprotection. Thrombolysis is currently the only approved treatment for ischemic stroke. However, its use is limited by the narrow therapeutic window and side effect of bleeding. Therefore, other interventions are desired that could potentially increase the perfusion of the penumbra. Here, we hypothesized that bilateral peripheral electrical stimulation will improve cerebral perfusion and restore cortical neurovascular response. We assess the outcomes of bilateral forepaw electrical stimulation at intensities of 2 and 4 mA, administered either unilaterally or bilaterally. We developed a combined electrocorticogram (ECoG)-functional photoacoustic microscopy (fPAM) system to evaluate the relative changes in cerebral hemodynamic function and electrophysiologic response to acute, focal stroke. The fPAM system is used for cerebral blood volume (CBV) and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2) and the ECoG for neural activity, namely somatosensory-evoked potential (SSEP), interhemispheric coherence, and alpha-delta ratio (ADR) in response to forepaw stimulation. Our results confirmed the neuroprotective effect of bilateral forepaw stimulation at 2 mA as indicated by the 82% recovery of ADR and 95% improvement in perfusion into the region of penumbra. This experimental model can be used to study other potential interventions such as therapeutic hypertension and hypercarbia.
Studying the functional hemodynamic roles of individual cerebral cortical arterioles in maintaining both the
structure and function of cortical regions during and after brain stroke in small animals is an important issue. Recently,
functional photoacoustic microscopy (fPAM) has been proved as a reliable imaging technique to probe the total
hemoglobin concentration (HbT), cerebral blood volume (CBV) and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2) in single
cerebral blood vessels of rats. Here, we report the application of fPAM associated with electrophysiology recordings to
investigating functional hemodynamic changes in single cortical arterioles of rats with electrical forepaw stimulation
after photo-induced ischemic stroke. Because of the weak optical focusing nature of our fPAM system, photo-induced
ischemic stroke targeting single cortical arterioles can be easily conducted with simple adaptation. Functional HbT, CBV
and SO2 changes associated with the induced stroke in selected arterioles from the anterior cerebral artery system were
imaged with 36 x 65-μm spatial resolution. Experimental results showed that after photo-occlusion of a single arteriole,
the functional changes of nearby arterioles in cerebral cortex only can be observed immediately after the stroke. After a
few minutes of stroke onset, there are no significant functional changes under the forepaw stimulation, suggesting that
alternate blood flow routes are not actively recruited. The fPAM with electrophysiology recordings complements
existing imaging techniques and has the potential to offer a favorable tool for explicitly studying cerebral hemodynamics
in small animal models of photo-indcued ischemic stroke.
The specificity of the hemodynamic response function (HRF) is determined spatially by the vascular architecture and temporally by the evolution of hemodynamic changes. Here, we used functional photoacoustic microscopy (fPAM) to investigate single cerebral blood vessels of rats after left forepaw stimulation. In this system, we analyzed the spatiotemporal evolution of the HRFs of the total hemoglobin concentration (HbT), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2). Changes in specific cerebral vessels corresponding to various electrical stimulation intensities and durations were bilaterally imaged with 36×65-μm2 spatial resolution. Stimulation intensities of 1, 2, 6, and 10 mA were applied for periods of 5 or 15 s. Our results show that the relative functional changes in HbT, CBV, and SO2 are highly dependent not only on the intensity of the stimulation, but also on its duration. Additionally, the duration of the stimulation has a strong influence on the spatiotemporal characteristics of the HRF as shorter stimuli elicit responses only in the local vasculature (smaller arterioles), whereas longer stimuli lead to greater vascular supply and drainage. This study suggests that the current fPAM system is reliable for studying relative cerebral hemodynamic changes, as well as for offering new insights into the dynamics of functional cerebral hemodynamic changes in small animals.
The specificity of the hemodynamic response function (HRF) is determined spatially by the vascular
architecture and temporally by the evolution of hemodynamic changes. Here, we used functional photoacoustic
microscopy (fPAM) to investigate the spatiotemporal evolution of the HRFs of hemoglobin concentration (HbT),
cerebral blood volume (CBV) and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2) in single cerebral vessels to rat left-forepaw
stimulation. The HRF changes in specific cerebral vessels responding to different stimulation intensities and durations
were bilaterally imaged with 36 × 65-μm spatial resolution. Various electrical stimulations were applied with stimulation
intensities at 1, 2, 6 and 10-mA combined with 5-s and 15-s stimulation durations, respectively. Our main findings were
as follows: 1) the functional HbT and SO2 increased sub-linearly with increasing stimulus intensities and 2) the results
suggested that the CBV changes are more linearly correlated with arterioles than HbT and SO2 within a limited dynamic
range of stimulation intensities and duration. The findings in this study indicate that the regulation of hemodynamic
changes in single cerebral vessels can be reliable studied by the fPAM technique without the use of contrast agents.
KEYWORDS: Ultrasonics, Absorption, Skull, Transducers, Hemodynamics, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, In vivo imaging, Ultrasonography, Signal to noise ratio, Somatosensory cortex
In this study, we report on using a 50-MHz functional photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) to transcranially image
the cross-section and hemoglobin oxygenation (SO2) changes of single mouse cortical vessels in response to left forepaw
electrical stimulation. Three difference levels of the cortical vessels (i.e., with different-sized diameters of 350, 100 and
55 μm) on activated regions were marked to measure their functional cross-section and SO2 changes as a function of time.
Electrical stimulation of the mouse left forelimb was applied to evoke functional changes in vascular dynamics of the
mouse somatosensory cortex. The applied current pulses were with a pulse frequency of 3 Hz, pulse duration of 0.2 ms,
and pulse amplitude of 2 mA. The cerebrovascular cross-section changes, which indicate changes in cerebral blood
volume (CBV), were probed by images acquired at 570 nm, a hemoglobin isosbestic point, while SO2 changes were
monitored by the derivatives of 560-nm images normalized to 570-nm ones. The results show that vessel diameter and
SO2 were significantly dilated and increased when compared with those of the controlled ones. In summary, the PAM
shows its promise as a new imaging modality for transcranially functional quantification of single vessel diameter (i.e.,
CBV) and SO2 changes without any contrast agents applied during stimulation.
In this study, we report on using multi-wavelength photoacoustic microscopy to image hemodynamic changes of
total hemoglobin concentration (HbT) (i.e., blood volume) and oxygenation (SO2) in rat brain cortex vessels with
electrical stimulation. Electrical stimulation of the rat left forelimb was applied to evoke changes in vascular dynamics of
the rat somatosensory cortex. The applied current pulses were with a pulse frequency of 3 Hz, pulse duration of 0.2 ms,
and pulse amplitude of 5 mA, respectively. The imaging target of rat brains was demarcated at AP 0 - -2.5 mm and ML
± 6 mm with respect to bregma. HbT changes were probed by images acquired at 570 nm, a hemoglobin isosbestic point
while SO2 changes were imaged by those acquired at 560 nm or 600 nm and their derivatives, which were normalized to
those with 570 nm wavelengths. Correlation between the electrical stimulation paradigm and images acquired at 570,
560, and 600 nm in contralateral and ipsilateral vasculature was statistically analyzed, showing that the HbT and SO2
changes revealed by multi-wavelength photoacoustic images spatially correlated with contralateral vasculature.
This study develops a statistical prediction model for backlight systems based on a semi-analytical and experimental approach. The prediction model features an iteration algorithm which uses experimental measurements of the luminance, luminance cone angle and luminous efficiency to generate highly accurate luminance predictions. The prediction model allows the effects of manufacturing errors or uncertainties which cause a deviation of the luminance cone angle or an uneven luminance uniformity to be accessed. The results show that achieving an even luminance cone angle, i.e. a smaller mean and standard deviation of the luminance cone angle, is essential if the backlight luminance level required to achieve a high-brightness backlight is to be enhanced. It is shown that improving the luminance uniformity of the backlight is beneficial in increasing the luminance level. However, the influence of the backlight luminance uniformity is not as great as that of the luminance cone angle. Finally, a comparison between the analytical and experimental results shows that a good agreement exists between the results of the proposed statistical model and the experimental data.
This paper demonstrates the strong enhancement of light extraction efficiency of
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) by a novel three-dimensionally arranged micro-cavity. There
are several optimal designed parameters, including chip dimensions, absorption coefficients,
the shape of the micro-cavity and package are analyzed on the basis of a Monte-Carlo ray
tracing simulation. The most important that studying includes GaN LEDs which are applied
to various applications, including traffic signals, backlight system for LCD and outdoor
illumination by white light LEDs. The functional of the three-dimensionally arranged
micro-cavity is to make the light extraction from LED with high efficiency. The shape of
micro-cavities are making like hexagon solids on the top view. The structure were
evaluated and simulated by TracePro software respectively. The light extraction efficiency
of LED can be greatly improved by three-dimensionally arranged micro-cavity. This study
shows that the micro-cavities induced on the surface rather than that inside the LED greatly
enhances the light extraction efficiency. This stipulation holds for both sapphire-based and
Thin-GaN LEDs. The results indeed identify the attributes of the LED, which make it
possible to achieve excellent luminance performance using a GaN-based approach from the
LED of "three-dimensionally arranged micro-cavity". This structure was stringent expected
to allow a high-efficiency LED, since the illumination systems needed for higher
luminance energy can be added independently of the effects.
A novel dual-cone-shaped side-emitting lens cap for High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes (HB-LEDs) is proposed for improving brightness and high uniformity of the direct LED acklight Units (BLUs) for large area LCD-TVs. Combining the designed lens cap with red, green and blue (RGB) chips on a Metal Core Printed Circuit Board (MCPCB), the LED module with the proposed cap is able to provide a compact white light source with unique features such as instant color variability and lower power usage, etc. The dual-cone-shaped of the proposed lens cap is designed to emitting most of the light rays to the sides, only a small portion of light upward along the optical axis of the lens, providing a uniform luminance distribution and the high brightness on the backlight. In addition, a small, half-circle eflective surface is designed and upon the proposed LED module about 10mm, the surfaces of which are attached with reflective films to increase the level of light mixing in the larger, global reflector optical box. With the structure of the LED module well designed, the LED backlight Module would design for the large area LCD-TV using the fewer number of LEDs and also have low power consumption. The results indeed identify the attributes of the BLU, which make it possible to achieve excellent backlight performance using a direct illumination approach from the light source of "Dual-Cone-Shaped Side-Emitting Lens Cap of LEDs".
A novel cone-shaped lens cap for High Brightness Light Emitting Diodes (HB-LEDs) is proposed for improving brightness and high uniformity of the direct LED Backlight Units (BLUs) for large area LCD-TVs. Combining the designed lens cap with red, green and blue (RGB) chips on a Metal Core Printed Circuit Board (MCPCB), the LED module with the proposed cap is able to provide a compact white light source with unique features such as instant color variability and lower power usage, etc [1] [2]. The cone shape of the proposed lens cap is designed to emit only a small portion of light upward along the optical axis of the lens, while most of the light rays to the sides, providing a uniform luminance distribution and the high brightness on the backlight. In addition, a small, local square reflective box is designed and coupled to enclose the proposed LED module[3] [4] [5], the inner surfaces of which are attached with reflective films to increase the level of light mixing in the larger, global reflector box. With the structure of the LED module well designed, the placement of the LED modules in the BLU is next optimized via the method of optimization algorithm (OA). In the process of OA executions, the locations of the LED modules are the design factors to be optimized with chosen enclosure dimensions and number of LEDs to maximize brightness and uniformity of the entire BLU. Moreover, in the OA process, the software TRACEPRO is utilized to compute brightness and uniformity of the BLU with certain combination of the aforementioned design and control parameters considered. With the theoretically-optimized placement of the LED modules in hand, experiments based on a realistic BLU built in the laboratory are conducted to verify the performance of the proposed LED module and associated optimized locations. The results indeed identify the attributes of the BLU, which make it possible to achieve excellent backlight performance using a direct illumination approach from the light source of "Cone-Shaped Lens Cap of LEDs".
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