Gal/Xgal U/LDB Spectroscopic/ Stratospheric THz Observatory (GUSTO) is a NASA Explorers Mission of Opportunity that will make large scale maps of the Milky Way and Large Magellanic Cloud in three important interstellar lines: [CII], [OI], and [NII] at 158, 63, and 205 µm, respectively. During its ~75 day stratospheric (~36 km) flight, GUSTO’s 0.9-meter balloon-borne telescope and THz heterodyne array receivers will provide the spectral and spatial resolution needed to untangle the complexities of the interstellar medium by probing all phases of its Life Cycle. The GUSTO payload consists of (1) a telescope; (2) three 8-pixel heterodyne array receivers; (3) autocorrelator spectrometers; (4) instrument control electronics; and (5) a cryostat. The GUSTO gondola is derived from successful APL designs. Much of the GUSTO instrument architecture and hardware is based on the experience gained in developing and flying the Stratospheric Terahertz Observatory (STO). GUSTO is currently undergoing integration and test and will launch from the NASA Long Duration Balloon (LDB) Facility near McMurdo, Antarctica in December 2023.
GUSTO (Galactic/ Extragalactic ULDB Spectroscopic Terahertz Observatory) equipped with three 8-pixel detection channels at 1.4, 1.9, and 4.7 THz will perform the largest single-flight mapping of the important lines of nitrogen [NII], carbon [CII], oxygen [OI] respectively, within the Milky Way and Large Magellanic Cloud..
Whilst the cutting edge technologies are applied in the mixer and local oscillator (LO) components, their proper coupling is crucial. Here we present the design, manufacturing and measurement results of a phase grating for multiplexing a single beam from a quantum cascade laser to 8 beams as the LO at 4.7 THz. We experimentally confirmed that the grating meets all the requirements.
This is the first time that such a complete characterization of a THz phase grating is being reported. This accomplishment paves the way for future larger array receivers to apply this component for such a critical function.
Generating multiple local oscillator beams is one challenge to develop large heterodyne receiver arrays (~100 pixels), which allow astronomical instrumentations mapping more area within limited space mission lifetime. Here, We combine a reflective Fourier grating with an unidirectional antenna coupled 3rd-order distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade laser (QCL) to generate 81 beams at 3.86 THz. We have measured the beam pattern of the diffracted 81 beams, which agrees well with a simulated result from COMSOL Multiphysics with respect to the angular distribution and power distribution among the 81 beams. The diffraction efficiency of the Fourier grating is derived to be 94±3%, which is very close to the simulated result of 97%. For an array of equal superconducting hot electron bolometer mixers, 64 out of 81 beams can pump the HEB mixers with similar power, resulting in receiver sensitivities within 10%. Such a combination of a Fourier grating and a QCL can create an LO with 100 beams or more, enabling a new generation of large heterodyne arrays for astronomical instrumentation. This paper is essentially a copy of our paper in Optics Express.
Quantum cascade laser-based frequency combs have attracted much attention as of late for applications in sensing and metrology, especially as sources for chip-scale spectroscopy at mid-infrared fingerprint wavelengths. A frequency comb is a light source whose lines are evenly-spaced, and only two frequencies are needed to describe the system—the offset and the repetition rate. Because chip-scale combs have large repetition rates, for many spectroscopic applications is important to be able to change both parameters independently, without substantially changing the comb spectrum or spectral structure. Although it is possible to modulate both the offset and the repetition rate of a comb by tuning the laser current and temperature, both properties affect the laser by changing its index of refraction, and both frequencies will be affected. Here, we show that by integrating a mirror onto a MEMS comb drive, the dispersion and group delay associated with a quantum cascade comb’s cavity can be modulated at kilohertz speeds. Because the MEMS mirror primarily affects the group delay of the cavity, it is able to adjust the comb’s repetition rate while leaving the offset frequency mostly unaffected. Since this adjustment is linearly independent from current adjustments and can be adjusted quickly, this provides an avenue for mutual stabilization of both parameters. In addition, we show that dynamic modulation of the comb drive is able to allow the laser to recover from comb-destroying feedback, making the resulting comb considerably more robust under realistic conditions.
GUSTO will be a NASA balloon borne terahertz observatory to be launched from Antarctica in late 2021 for a flight duration of 100-170 days. It aims at reviewing the life cycle of interstellar medium of our galaxy by simultaneously mapping the three brightest interstellar cooling lines: [OI] at 4.7 THz, [CII] at 1.9 THz, and [NII] at 1.4 THz; along the 124 degrees of the galactic plane and through a part of the Large Magellanic Cloud. It will use three arrays of 4x2 mixers based on NbN hot electron bolometers (HEBs), which are currently the most sensitive mixers for high resolution spectroscopic astronomy at these frequencies.
Here we report on the design of a novel 4.7 THz receiver for GUSTO. The receiver consists mainly of two subsystems: a 4×2 HEB quasi-optical mixer array and a 4.7 THz multi-beam LO. We describe the mixer array, which is designed as a compact monolithic unit. We show, for example, 10 potential HEB detectors with the state of the art sensitivity of 720 K measured at 2.5 THz. They have a small variation in sensitivity, being less than 3%, while also meet the LO uniformity requirements. For the multi-beam LO we demonstrate the combination of a phase grating and a single QCL at 4.7 THz, which generates 8 sub-LO beams, where the phase grating shows an efficiency of 75%. A preliminary concept for the integrated LO unit, including QCL, phase grating and beam matching optics is presented.
Recent research has shown that free-running quantum cascade lasers are capable of producing frequency combs in midinfrared and THz regions of the spectrum. Unlike familiar frequency combs originating from mode-locked lasers, these do not require any additional optical elements inside the cavity and have temporal characteristics that are dramatically different from the periodic pulse train of conventional combs. Frequency combs from quantum cascade lasers are characterized by the absence of sharp pulses and strong frequency modulation, periodic with the cavity round trip time but lacking any periodicity within that period. To explicate for this seemingly perplexing behavior, we develop a model of the gain medium using optical Bloch equations that account for hole burning in spectral, spatial, and temporal domains. With this model, we confirm that the most efficient mode of operation of a free-running quantum cascade laser is indeed a pseudorandom frequency-modulated field with nearly constant intensity. We show that the optimum modulation period is commensurate with the gain recovery time of the laser medium and the optimum modulation amplitude is comparable to the gain bandwidth, behavior that has been observed in the experiments.
Due to their broad spectral bandwidth and superior temperature performance, resonant phonon quantum cascade laser (QCL) designs have become the active-region of choice for many of the leading groups in terahertz (THz) QCL research. These gain media can vary substantially in the number of wells and barriers as well as their corresponding thicknesses, but all such structures employ a common resonant phonon lower laser level depopulation scheme and a resonant tunneling mechanism for efficient current injection into the upper laser level. The presence of a strong anticrossing between the injector and upper laser level leads, under the right conditions, to a pronounced splitting of the emission spectra into high and low frequency lobe components around some central transition frequency. This spectral hole burning effect also manifests itself in the time domain as a form of pulse switching between signals corresponding to the two lobes of the split gain, as it has already been experimentally observed. This process was termed as a form of temporal hole burning (THB), which next to spectral and spatial hole burning, completes the plethora of dynamic "hole burning" phenomena encountered in QCLs. In this work, we investigate the temporal dynamics of THz QCLs with a strong injector anticrossing via numerical solution of the Maxwell-Bloch laser equations. Our simulation results show remarkable agreement with experiment and we further outline the development of a theoretical model which intuitively explains this effect.
Milliwatt average power terahertz quantum cascade lasers (THz-QCLs) combined with microbolometer focal plane array cameras allow for acquisition rates on the order of 1×106 pixels/s. This system enables real-time imaging in transmission and reflection modes with signal to noise ratios of >25 dB per pixel. While these system allow rapid imaging for fairly transparent samples, signal to noise ratios of > 90 dB can be achieved with single element detectors where the samples are more opaque or require higher SNR. Systems using LongWave's terahertz QCLs and single/multi-element detectors will be presented.
Milliwatt average power terahertz quantum cascade lasers (THz-QCLs, 2 THz to 5 THz) have been developed for spectroscopy and as local oscillators for heterodyne receivers. Novel DFB THz-QCLs have been fabricated and show single-mode operation. The narrow line widths of <10 MHz and stark shift tuning of of 6 GHz, allows for wavelength modulation spectroscopy of low pressure gasses in the unexplored THz frequency band. The same devices also act as local-oscillators for heterodyne receivers for remote-sensing and astronomy. Lastly we report on improved tunable DFB devices for use in spectroscopy.
We report on the performance of a high sensitivity 4.7 THz heterodyne receiver based on a NbN hot electron bolometer mixer and a quantum cascade laser (QCL) as local oscillator. The receiver is developed to observe the astronomically important neutral atomic oxygen [OI] line at 4.7448 THz on a balloon based telescope. The single-line frequency control and improved beam pattern of QCL have taken advantage of a third-order distributed feedback structure. We measured a double sideband receiver noise temperature (Trec(DSB)) of 815 K, which is ~ 7 times the quantum noise limit (hν/2kB). An Allan time of 15 s at an effective noise fluctuation bandwidth of 18 MHz is demonstrated. Heterodyne performance was further supported by a measured methanol line spectrum around 4.7 THz.
By introducing coupled microstrip antennas on THz Distributed Feedback (DFB) Quantum Cascade Lasers (QCLs), the
radiation efficiency of each feedback aperture is greatly enhanced. Single mode emission ~3 THz from a 31-period
antenna-coupled third-order DFB laser yields ~4 times improvement in output power comparing with a corrugated thirdorder
device fabricated on the same gain medium. This 31-period device has ~15×25° beam divergence and 4 mW
pulsed power (4%) at 10 K with maximum lasing temperature (Tmax) at 134 K (pulsed). When phase matching condition
is met, emissions from 81 apertures (4-mm long) are coherently combined to form a narrow beam with 12.5° divergence.
Further experiment demonstrated the new device at 4 THz (25-period, ~18 μm×1-mm long. The 4 THz device reaches
>8 mW pulsed power (10%) at 12 K with Tmax 109 K (pulsed) and >77 K (cw). The slope efficiency is 450 mW/A with
0.57% wall-plug. It is worth pointing out although the antennas would be excited differently, similar enhancement in
out-coupling efficiency can also be observed in second-order surface-emitting THz DFB lasers. Begin the abstract two
lines below author names and addresses.
The interfaces of a dielectric sample are resolved in reflection geometry using light from a frequency agile array of
terahertz quantum-cascade lasers. The terahertz source is a 10-element linear array of third-order distributed feedback
QCLs emitting at discrete frequencies from 2.08 to 2.4 THz. Emission from the array is collimated and sent through a
Michelson interferometer, with the sample placed in one of the arms. Interference signals collected at each frequency are
used to reconstruct an interferogram and detect the interfaces in the sample. Due to the long coherence length of the
source, the interferometer arms need not be adjusted to the zero-path delay. A depth resolution of 360 μm in the
dielectric is achieved with further potential improvement through improved frequency coverage of the array. The entire
experiment footprint is <1 m x 1 m with the source operated in a compact, closed-cycle cryocooler.
This paper describes a real-time transmission-type Terahertz (THz) microscope, with palm-size THz camera and compact quantum cascade laser (QCL). The THz camera contains 320x240 microbolometer focal plane array which operates at 30 Hz frame rate and has lock-in imaging function as well as integration functions such as frame integration and spatial filter. These functions are found very powerful in improving signal-to-noise ratio. QCL is installed in compact Stirling cycle cooler. A variety of QCLs covers frequency range from 1.5 to 5 THz and provides time-average power of 0.5~2 mW. The illumination area for sample is changed by adjusting one lens in the illumination optics. Performances of the THz microscope, such as signal-to-noise ratio and so on, were measured and are found consistent with the calculations. THz images taken with the THz microscope are finally presented.
We report a new experiment on a high-resolution heterodyne spectrometer using a 3.5 THz quantum cascade laser
(QCL) as local oscillator (LO) and a superconducting hot electron bolometer (HEB) as mixer by stabilizing both
frequency and amplitude of the QCL. The frequency locking of the QCL is demonstrated by using a methanol molecular
absorption line, a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, and a direct power detector. We show that the LO
locked linewidth can be as narrow as 35 KHz. The LO power to the HEB is also stabilized by means of swing-arm
actuator placed in the beam path in combination of a second PID controller.
This paper describes a real-time terahertz (THz) imaging system, using the combination of a palm-size THz camera
with a compact quantum cascade laser (QCL). The THz camera contains a 320x240 microbolometer focal plane array
which has nearly flat spectral response over a frequency range of ca. 1.5 to 100 THz, and operates at 30 Hz frame rate.
The QCL is installed in compact cryogen-free cooler. A variety of QCLs are prepared which can cover frequency range
from ca. 1.5 to 5 THz. THz images of biochemical samples will be presented, using the combined imaging system.
Performance of the imaging system, such as signal-to-noise ratio of transmission-type THz microscope, is predicted.
We demonstrate a terahertz quantum-cascade laser (QCL) operating significantly above the temperature of
hv/kB, which had so-far been been an empirical limitation for the maximum operating temperature of these
devices. With a design that employs a new scattering-assisted injection scheme, a 1.8 THz QCL operating up
to a temperature of 1.9hv/kB (163 K) is realized with more than 3 mW of peak optical power output at 150 K.
We also demonstrate continuous tunability over a frequency range of 137 GHz of a single-mode QCL operating
at 3.8 THz in metal-metal waveguides. A unique concept of altering the lateral mode profile of the "wire laser"
waveguide geometry was implemented to achieve tuning despite the strong mode confinement of metal-metal
waveguides at terahertz frequencies.
High-resolution heterodyne spectrometers operating at above 2 THz are crucial for detecting, e.g., the HD line at 2.7
THz and oxygen OI line at 4.7 THz in astronomy. The potential receiver technology is a combination of a hot electron
bolometer (HEB) mixer and a THz quantum cascade laser (QCL) local oscillator (LO).Here we report the first highresolution
heterodyne spectroscopy measurement of a gas cell using such a HEB-QCL receiver. The receiver employs a
2.9 THz free-running QCL as local oscillator and a NbN HEB as a mixer. By using methanol (CH3OH) gas as a signal
source, we successfully recorded the methanol emission line at 2.92195 THz. Spectral lines at IF frequency at different
pressures were measured using a FFTS and well fitted with a Lorentzian profile. Our gas cell measurement is a crucial
demonstration of the QCL as LO for practical heterodyne instruments. Together with our other experimental
demonstrations, such as using a QCL at 70 K to operate a HEB mixer and the phase locking of a QCL such a receiver is
in principle ready for a next step, which is to build a real instrument for any balloon-, air-, and space-borne observatory.
We summarize recent development of terahertz quantum-cascade lasers (QCLs) based on a resonant-phonon
active region design and metal-metal waveguides for mode confinement. Maximum pulsed operating temperature
of 169 K is demonstrated for a 2.7 THz design. Lasers processed with the semi-insulating surface-plasmon (SISP)
waveguides and the metal-metal (MM) waveguides are experimentally compared. Whereas the SISP waveguides
have higher out-coupling efficiencies, the MM waveguides demonstrate improved temperature performance owing
to their lower-loss and near unity mode confinement; however, this comes at the cost of poor radiation patterns
and low output power. The beam quality and the out-coupling efficiency of the MM waveguides is shown to be
significantly improved by abutting a silicon hyperhemispherical lens to the cleaved facets of ridge lasers. Whereas
peak pulsed power of 26 mW at 5 K was detected from a 4.1 THz laser without the lens (device Tmax = 165 K),
the detected power increased to 145 mW with the lens with only a 5 K degradation in the maximum operating
temperature (device Tmax = 160 K).
We summarize recent results in the development of terahertz quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) based on resonant-phonon
active region designs. First, we describe attempts to improve high-temperature operation of terahertz QCLs by the use
of double-phonon depopulation in order to prevent thermal backfilling of the lower radiative state. While the best of the
three tested devices displayed a threshold current density of Jth=170 A/cm2 at 5 K and lased up to 138 K in pulsed
mode, no temperature advantage was observed compared to single-phonon designs. Also, we describe high power
operation of two different THz QCLs that emit up to 248 mW (pulsed) and 135 mW (continuous-wave) at 4.3-4.5 THz,
and 75 mW (pulsed) at 4.8-5.0 THz.
Terahertz (1 - 10 THz) quantum-well photodetectors and quantum- cascade lasers have been investigated. The design and projected detector performance are presented together with experimental results on several test devices, all working at photon energies below the optical phonons. Background limited infrared performance (BLIP) operations were observed for all samples (three in total) designed for different wavelengths. For lasers, a set of THz quantumcascade
lasers with identical device parameters except for the doping concentration has been studied. The δ-doping density for each period was varied from 3.2 × 1010 to 4.8 × 1010 cm-2. We observed that the lasing threshold current increased monotonically with doping. Moreover, the measured results on devices with different cavity lengths provided evidence that the free carrier absorption caused waveguide loss also increased monotonically. Interestingly however, the observed maximum lasing temperature displayed an optimum at a doping density of 3.6 × 1010 cm-2.
Quantum cascade lasers that operate in the underdeveloped terahertz spectral range (1-10 THz) promise to contribute to applications in sensing, spectroscopy, and imaging. We describe our development of terahertz quantum cascade lasers based on the resonant-phonon depopulation concept and that use low-loss metal-metal waveguides for optical confinement. Two- and three-dimensional finite-element simulations of terahertz metal-metal waveguides are used to demonstrate their high modal confinement even for very
narrow ridges. Also, simulations predict high facet reflectivities due to the modal impedance mismatch with free space
at the sub-wavelength waveguide aperture of these metal-metal waveguides. Finally, we report the demonstration
of a 2.8 THz laser that operates up to 97 K in continuous-wave mode fabricated using a Cu-Cu thermocompression bonding technique.
The recent extension of quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) from the mid-infrared to the terahertz frequency range (1-10 THz) promises to help address the relative lack of compact, coherent radiation sources in this spectral regime. We report our recent development of terahertz QCLs based on a resonant phonon depopulation scheme coupled with high-confinement, low-loss, metal-metal waveguides for mode confinement. A 3.2 THz laser (λ≈ 93.4 μm) is presented that operates in continuous wave mode up to a temperature of 93 K and up to 133 K in pulsed mode. Also presented is a 2.1 THz laser (λ ≈ 141 μm) that lases up to 40 K in continuous wave mode and 72 K in pulsed mode.
We have combined silicon micromachining technology with planar circuits to fabricated room-temperature niobium microbolometers for millimeter-wave detection. In this type of detector, a thin niobium film, with a dimension much smaller than the wavelength, is fabricated on a 1-micrometers thick Si3N4 membrane of square and cross geometries. The Nb film acts both as a radiation absorber and temperature sensor. Incident radiation is coupled into the microbolometer by a 0.37 (lambda) dipole antenna with a center frequency of 95 GHz and a 3-db bandwidth of 15%, which is impedance matched with the Nb film. The dipole antennas is placed inside a micromachined pyramidal cavity formed by anisotropically etched Si wafers. To increase the Gaussian beam coupling efficiency, a machined square or circular horn is placed in front of the micromachined section. Circular horns interface more easily with die-based manufacturing processes; therefore, we have developed simulation tools that allow us to model circular machined horns. We have fabricated both single element receivers and 3 X 3 focal-plane arrays using uncooled Nb microbolometers. An electrical NEP level of 8.3 X 10-11 W/(root)Hz has been achieved for a single- element receiver. This NEP level is better than that of the commercial room-temperature pyroelectric millimeter-wave detectors. The frequency response of the microbolometer has a ln(1/f) dependence with frequency, and the roll-off frequency is approximately 35 kHz.
Accurate measurements have been made of the noise and gain of superconducting-insulating- superconducting (SIS) mixers employing small-area (1 micrometers 2) Ta/Ta2O5/Pb0.9Bi0.1 tunnel junctions. The authors have measured an added mixer noise of 0.61 +/- 0.31 quanta at 95.0 GHz, which is within 25% of the quantum limit of 0.5 quanta. A detailed comparison is made between theoretical predictions of the quantum theory of mixing and experimentally measured noise and gain. The authors used the shapes of I-V curves pumped at the upper and lower sideband frequencies to deduce values of the embedding admittances at these frequencies. Using these admittances, the mixer noise and gain predicted by quantum theory are in excellent agreement with experiment.
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