The aim of this work is the characterization of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor prototype through a statistical analysis in accordance with the official Mexican standard. To determine the repeatability and reproducibility of ophthalmic aberration measurements, given in Zernike polynomials, a measurement protocol was proposed. The measurements were obtained using an experimental optical system, which uses a super luminescent diode (SLD) IR, as well as ophthalmic trial lenses to introduce optical aberrations, which are used as reference materials. The complete optical system is intended to be used as an experimental aberrometer to obtain low order aberrations of the human eye in vivo.
Through optical equipment such as the ophthalmoscope, it is possible to visualize and image the inner surface of the eye, where the main structures of the retina can be observed. The visual analysis of the retinal vasculature is widely used by ophthalmologists for prevention, diagnosis, and monitoring of retinal diseases. Nevertheless, derived from pathologies that generate an opacity in the crystalline lens (such as cataracts), the task of visualize blood vessels becomes difficult, since there is a lack of contrast in the fundus image. In this work, a multiscale decomposition method based on the Weighted Least Squares (WLS) optimization is applied to cataractous eye fundus images, with the aim of obtaining a better blood-vessel to background contrast. The proposed scheme is implemented over a publicly-available cataract eye fundus dataset. The experimental results provide a notorious visual improvement in contrast and restoration of blood vessels pixels and, in addition, maintains adequate saturation and lighting for visual analysis. The visual improvement of the vasculature represents a potential benefit in the ophthalmic analysis of patients with cataracts, since it is possible to observe the vascular morphology in greater detail while keeping relevant image features.
This research presents an alternative method to represent aberrated wavefronts based on circular Bessel functions. These wavefronts are obtained by means of a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor prototype, which was previously statistical validated according to the official Mexican standard. We show experimental results obtained from two wavefronts aberrated by two ophthalmic trial lenses; one of them has a spherical aberration of -1.0 diopter and the other one has a defocus aberration of +1.0 diopter. Both wavefronts are shown in terms of circular Bessel functions and compared with their corresponding representation in Zernike polynomials.
In this paper, we show the results and feasibility of a designed software for obtaining and graphing aberrations in 2D, and the post-processing necessary for the detection of the centroids. This software is designed to be used in low-cost and highly affordable commercial devices such as Raspberry pi and Raspberry pi HQ Camera. Preliminary results will also be presented.
In recent years, the segmentation and projection techniques of different structures of medical interest have had significant growth due to its usefulness; doctors have been using them as tools for the diagnosis and evolution of different diseases. The segmentation of the Inner Limiting Membrane (ILM) in retinal scans acquired using the Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) imaging technique has generated particular interest in the medical area since it provides clinically relevant information about diseases such as Glaucoma, Diabetic Macular Edema (DME) or Multiple Sclerosis. Furthermore, the generation of a surface that shows the current morphological situation of the scanned retinal area is a tool that complements the medical analysis. In this paper, a new methodology for the ILM segmentation on OCT retinal images and a surface projection from different axially spaced scans acquired over the macular and peripapillary zone is presented. The proposed scheme consists of a wavelet-based denoising step and a contrast enhancement stage using Eigenvalues of Hessian matrix, while the segmentation process is based on the Canny edge detection algorithm; these stages are applied to each image of a C-scan for a later surface generation using Cubic spline interpolation. This method is applied to a publicly available OCT data-set composed of 22 patients with several retinal diseases obtaining a correct individual segmentation of each image, while the surface generation results demonstrate high performance in the visualization of the ILM morphology, which can be used for dimensional analysis of this membrane.
Nowadays, the Shack-Hartmann aberrometer is one of the most widely used devices for measuring optical aberrations of the human eye due to the closed-loop automation features of this sensor. These aberrometers are used in fundus cameras to measure aberrations inherent to the human eye, which represent a deformation of the cornea that prevents the capture of eye images of high spatial resolution and can be compensated by adaptive optical systems. This article shows the validation of an experimental Shack-Hartmann aberrometer, which in the future will be used as the optimized adaptive optics arm of an eye fundus camera for the purpose of obtaining sharp images of the retina and its photoreceptors for the preventive diagnosis of anomalies that could generate partial or total loss of vision of the human being. The validation is done by a statistical analysis between the aberrations obtained from our experimental system and a commercial aberrometer. This analysis will be based on the most common aberrations of the human eye, e.g. myopia and astigmatism.
The study of the influence of the aperture size over the measurements of the L*a*b chromatic coordinates in spectrocolorimeters, in particular, the Macbeth 7000A ® spectrocolorimeter with an illumination/detection geometry d/8°. This is of importance due to the fact that many industry laboratories use it. This study will give us an invaluable insight of the variations in the measurements of the chromatic coordinates in the visible spectrum range regarding to three different aperture sizes; 2,5cm (AL), 1cm (AM), and 0,5cm (AS). The measurements are carried out on 13 Reference Materials (RMs) or diffusers with different hue under the following metrics; including specular component (SCI), excluding ultraviolet component (UVex), D65 illuminant, and 2° observer. The analysis and quantification of the data were done by the use of statistical tools such as variance analysis and Mendel parameters. In this work the analysis of the latter measurements as well as the methodology that quantifies the accuracy and precision of the method, i.e., repeatability and reproducibility, are presented.
In the last decade, Adaptive Optics has been used to compensate the aberrations of the eye in order to acquire high resolution retinal images. The use of high speed deformable mirrors (DMs) to accomplish this compensation in real time is of great importance. But, sometimes DMs are overused, compensating the aberrations inherent in the optical systems. In this work the evaluation of the performance of an adaptive optics system together with the imaging system will be evaluated in order to know in advance the aberrations inherent in them in order to compensate them prior the use of a DM.
We propose a two-step trapezoidal-pattern phase-shifting method for 3-D surface-shape measurements. Shape measurements by trapezoidal phase-shifting methods require high-quality trapezoidal patterns. Furthermore, most of the video projectors are nonlinear, making it difficult to generate high quality phase without nonlinearity calibration and correction. To overcome the limitations, we propose a method for synthesizing trapezoidal intensity fringes as a way to solve the problems caused by projector/camera gamma nonlinearity. The fringe generation technique consists of projecting and acquiring a temporal sequence of strictly binary color patterns (Gray code), whose (adequately weighted) average leads to trapezoidal fringe patterns with the required number of bits, which allows a reliable three-dimensional profile reconstruction using phase-shifting methods. Validation experiments are presented.
Shape measurements by sinusoidal phase-shifting methods require high-quality sinusoidal fringes. Furthermore, most of the video projectors are nonlinear, making it difficult to generate high quality phase without nonlinearity calibration and correction. To overcome the limitations of the conventional digital fringe projection techniques, we proposed a method that involves the projection of digital binary patterns generated by the pulse-width modulation (PWM). We will demonstrate that applying digital filtering, in particular, low pass filters, one can obtain a high-quality sinusoidal pattern. Which in combination with phase-shifting methods, allows a reliable 3-D profiling surface reconstruction at large timerates. Validation experiments using a commercial video projector are presented.
One of the most used techniques for measuring the optical aberrations of the human eye is the so-called Shack-Hartmann aberrometer. In this paper, a compact experimental setup is presented for the acquisition of in vivo human eye aberrations. This experimental aberrometer system will be used as the adaptive optics (AO) arm of a flood illuminating system. The experimental results of the eye aberrations acquisition using our proposed system are presented and compared with the irx3 commercial aberrometer, probing the validity of our system. Also, we present the preliminary results of the capture of the fundus of a model eye.
The application of the wavefront sensors to measuring the monochromatic aberrations of the normal human eyes has given a new insight in the objective understanding of its performance. The resultant wavefront aberration function can be applied to evaluate the image quality on the retina, which includes the analysis of the higher-order aberrations. Among others, and due to their well-known mathematical properties for circular apertures, the wavefront aberration function is most commonly represented in terms of the Zernike polynomials. The main idea is to have a clinical reference of the objective performance of a set of normal human eyes. However, the high-order aberrations in normal human eyes are different for each person¸ that can be interpreted as that there are many possible solutions for the objective performance of emmetropic eyes. When dealing with the Zernike coefficients and excluding the spherical aberration, higher-order aberrations have a tendency to have a zero mean value. Different proposals have been suggested in the literature to deal with this feature. Moreover, it has been also shown that there is an ethnic dependency in the magnitude of the aberrations. We present in this work the objective performance of a set of uncorrected Mexican eyes, and compare them with other ethnic results published in the literature.
In recent years there has been many advances in the field of visual optics, such as new technologies to measure and to
analyze the wavefront aberration function of the human eye. In this direction, corneal topographers have been
extensively used as a tool to obtain related data that can be used to get the refractive power maps of the human cornea in
order to characterize the optical function of the eye. On the other hand, it is well known that we can describe the optical
aberrations in the human eye as a polynomial expansion of the Zernike polynomials. In this work we present a
qualitative comparison of a refractive power map from a reference refractive surface obtained with an alternate form of
representation, first proposed in 2007 by Iskander1et al., of the wavefront aberrations in the dioptric power domain and
the usual geometrical representation of the power refractive maps. We present our preliminary results from such
comparison.
The use of Adaptive Optics (AO) in ophthalmologic instruments to image human retinas has been probed to improve
the imaging lateral resolution, by correcting both static and dynamic aberrations inherent in human eyes. Typically,
the configuration of the AO arm uses an infrared beam from a superluminescent diode (SLD), which is focused on
the retina, acting as a point source. The back reflected light emerges through the eye optical system bringing with it
the aberrations of the cornea. The aberrated wavefront is measured with a Shack – Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWFS).
However, the aberrations in the optical imaging system can reduced the performance of the wave front
correction. The aim of this work is to present an optimized first stage AO experimental setup for in vivo retinal
imaging. In our proposal, the imaging optical system has been designed in order to reduce spherical aberrations due
to the lenses. The ANSI Standard is followed assuring the safety power levels. The performance of the system will
be compared with a commercial aberrometer. This system will be used as the AO arm of a flood-illuminated fundus
camera system for retinal imaging. We present preliminary experimental results showing the enhancement.
Nowadays in ophthalmologic practice several commercial instruments are available to image patient retinas in vivo.
Many modern fundus cameras and confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopes allow acquisition of two dimensional en
face images of the retina with both back reflected as well as fluorescent light. Additionally, optical coherence
tomography systems allow non-invasive probing of three-dimensional retinal morphology. For all of these instruments
the available lateral resolution is limited by optical quality of the human eye used as the imaging objective. To improve
lateral resolution and achieve diffraction-limited imaging, adaptive optics (AO) can be implemented with any of these
imaging systems to correct both static and dynamic aberrations inherent in human eyes. Most of the wavefront correctors
used previously in AO systems have limited dynamic range and an insufficient number of actuators to achieve
diffraction-limited correction of most human eyes. Thus, additional corrections were necessary, either by trial lenses or
additional deformable mirrors (DMs). The UC Davis AO flood-illuminated fundus camera system described in this
paper has been previously used to acquire in vivo images of the photoreceptor mosaic and for psychophysical studies on
normal and diseased retinas. These results were acquired using a DM manufactured by Litton ITEK (DM109), which has
109 actuators arranged in a hexagonal array below a continuous front-surface mirror. It has an approximate surface
actuator stroke of ±2μm. Here we present results with a new hi-speed magnetic DM manufactured by ALPAO (DM97,
voice coil technology), which has 97 actuators and similar inter-actuator stroke (>3μm, mirror surface) but much higher
low-order aberration correction (defocus stroke of at least ±30μm) than the previous one. In this paper we report results
of testing performance of the ALPAO DM for the correction of human eye aberrations. Additionally changes made to
our AO flood illuminated system are presented along with images of the model eye retina and in-vivo human retina
acquired with this system.
Dissipative three-wave weakly coupled states, appearing within collinear and non-collinear Bragg light scattering in a
two-mode square-law nonlinear medium with the linear optical losses, are uncovered. The conditions for localizing
these dissipative coupled sates as well as the spatial-frequency distributions of their optical components are studied
theoretically in quasi-stationary regime. Then, a set of estimations related to the realization of similar dissipative three-wave
coupled states have been performed within the acousto-optical experiments in the α-quartz crystalline cells
providing collinear and non-collinear geometries of interactions. The distinguishing feature of these potential
experiments is the fact that the presence of linear optical losses affects both shaping these dissipative weakly coupled
states and the technique for detection and identification of their optical components.
Estimating the effective photo-elastic constants peculiar to a set of partial processes inherent in a one-phonon Bragg
anomalous light scattering of light in tellurium dioxide crystal is progressed. Really high optic and acoustic anisotropy
of this crystal leads to the fact that the efficiency of light scattering is critically conditioned by the ellipticity of the
incident light polarization and details in the geometry of acousto-optical interaction. Using a technique of the eigenvectors
for elliptical states of light polarization in anisotropic medium, we describe analytically the efficiency of a onephonon
Bragg anomalous light scattering in and optimized cell, oriented along the [001] and [110] crystallographic
axes with variously polarized incident light modes. Possible interpretation of the results obtained is briefly discussed.
We develop our previous considerations for one of the most important problems related to optimizing the performance
data of a new acousto-optical spectrometer for the analysis of radio-astronomical signals. The main attention is paid to
estimating the side lobes of light distributions inherent in an individual resolvable spot in the output Fourier plane,
governing the dynamic range of that spectrometer. At first, we analyze the Akhieser mechanism responsible for linear
attenuation of both longitudinal and shear elastic waves in isotropic solid states. Similar analysis can be directly applied
to crystalline materials as well in all the cases of passing elastic wave along the acoustic axis in crystals. Then, we
estimate the influence of the acoustic attenuation along a large-aperture acousto-optical cells operating in a one- and two-phonon
light scattering regimes. In so doing, the optimal operating points are discussed for both these regimes. Finally,
the combined effect of the acoustic attenuation and the incident light beam apodization is studied from the points of view
of optimizing the levels of side lobes and minima in light distribution of an individual resolvable spot in focal plane of
the integrating lens and, consequently, estimating potential limitations of the dynamic range.
An opportunity of shaping three-wave solitary coupled states within the co-directional collinear acousto-optical
interaction between two optical waves and the suffering losses acoustic pulses in a square-law nonlinear crystal. The
considered analytical model for this process with the mismatched wave numbers describes a regime of strongly
coupled modes. They are studied using the first order approximations relative to a pair of the parameter of smallness.
We assume that both the acoustic losses and the wave number mismatch represent these pair of the smallness
parameters of the same order. Three-wave collinear acousto-optical coupled states originating within such an
interaction exhibit an asymmetry in shapes of their envelopes and shifts of extrema in their intensity distributions.
We consider physical principles of realizing the Bragg regimes for a two- and three-phonon light scattering in both optically and acoustically anisotropic tellurium dioxide crystal under specially elaborated conditions. The exact analytical models for describing these regimes are briefly discussed. The performed analysis demonstrates the principal possibilities of realizing 100% efficiency of light modulation in these regimes, and computer simulations illustrate the obtained results. The applications lie in the fields of exploiting large aperture spatial modulators of light. The main attention was paid to estimating the frequency bandwidths as well as the frequency resolution of such modulators.
We estimate the effective photo-elastic constants peculiar to a two- and three-phonon scattering of light in Bragg regime in optical modulators based on tellurium dioxide crystalline structures. A triplet or quartet of modes appears within the interaction between the incident light beam and the acoustic wave under action of a square-law nonlinearity in similar structures. The analysis and numerical simulations are formulated in terms of the eigen-vectors for light modes in anisotropic medium and take into account the effect of optical activity in TeO2. This analysis is devoted to estimating and comparing the effective photo-elastic constants inherent in normal and anomalous regimes of acousto-optical interaction in tellurium dioxide and oriented to performing the optical modulators. The obtained experimental data on a two- and three-phonon light scattering are discussed in connection with practical estimations.
We consider two technically important problems related to implementing a new acousto-optical spectrometer for the
analysis of radio-astronomical signals. This project lies in a line with the program of developing the metrological
equipment for the Mexican Large Millimeter Telescope. Here, the main attention is paid to arranging the optical
scheme of such a spectrometer, namely, to designing the prism-made optical beam shaper and to characterizing the
potential resolution, i.e. the number of resolvable spots, inherent in acousto-optical spectrometer exploiting a one-phonon
optimized anomalous light scattering by acoustic phonons in a large-aperture cell made of the specifically
oriented tellurium dioxide single crystal.
We study practical opportunities of characterizing the angular or frequency bandwidth as well as the number of
resolvable elements (spots) within a two-phonon light scattering in optically and acoustically anisotropic tellurium
dioxide crystal when the efficiency of acousto-optical interaction is small enough to consider these problems in the
first-order approximation. Then, an approach based on the transfer function technique is applied to estimating the
angular bandwidth inherent in acousto-optical cell operating in a two-phonon light scattering regime. The obtained
result is compared with the data related to a one-phonon regime of light scattering in isotropic medium. Finally, the
number of resolvable elements is estimated for a two-phonon light scattering regime. In so doing, the combined
diagram illustrating joint effect of a triplet of such factors as the geometric limitations and the acoustic attenuation,
which restrict the number of spots just in the regime under consideration, has been created for the first time.
Here, we consider one of the most important problems related to optimizing the performance data of a new acoustooptical
spectrometer for the analysis of radio-astronomical signals. The main attention is paid to estimating two factors
governing the dynamic range of that spectrometer. At first, we determine the influence of the acoustic attenuation
along a large-aperture acousto-optical cell on potential levels of lobes in focal plane of the integrating lens and then
describe capabilities of the incident light beam apodization for increasing the dynamic range of spectrometer. These
studies lie in a line with the program of developing metrological equipment for Mexican Large Millimeter Telescope.
Some physical aspects of realizing one-, two-, and three-phonon scattering of light in the Bragg regime under specially
chosen conditions in optically anisotropic tellurium dioxide crystal are considered. The exact and closed analytical
models for describing these regimes using diagram technique of describing the orders of scattering are exploited. The
performed analysis is devoted first of all to the efficiency of light scattering in these regimes and is illustrated by
numerical estimations. Then, reasonable attention is paid to the effect of acoustic anisotropy in TeO2 -single crystals.
We study the property of propagation beams disturbed by an opaque obstacle. The fronts of the Hankel waves are disturbed and beyond the obstacle they are reconstructed. We report the observation of two shadow produced by the obstacle, and the fact that the Bessel beam is formed of ingoing and outgoing conical waves. We numerically solve the Helmholtz equation to show the evolution and the reconstruction of the Bessel beam and we demonstrate the correspondence of these results with the experimental part.
Photo-thermal effect is in general a well-established technique for remote and nondestructive material and structure evaluation. In particular, the method of transient thermal gratings is typically used for characterization of thermal properties and of low optical absorption in liquids. Conventional experimental configuration implies utilizing two mutually coherent recording beams to produce the thermal grating and one additional probe beam to detect it. We propose to perform recording and simultaneously probing the thermal grating using the same recording beams in configuration of dynamic two-wave-mixing (TWM), which simplifies the detection configuration and, as we hope, increases the sensitivity. In this configuration the sample is irradiated by the interference pattern of two coherent beams, in one of which the periodic phase modulation is additionally introduced. The output signal is detected as an amplitude modulation in one of the transmitted beams using conventional high-sensitivity lock-in amplification technique. The detected output signal is proportional to the amplitude of the thermal grating (but not to the grating diffraction efficiency as in coventional arrangement with additional probe beam), which also potentially increases the sensitivity. While the grating amplitude is evaluated directly from the output signal amplitude detected in this configuration, the photo-thermal grating formation time is obtained from position of the so-called "cut-off" frequency in the signal modulation frequency dependence. Details of experiments with this configuration using slightly dyed acetone sample at the wavelength 633 nm, which resulted in evaluation of the characteristic grating recording time and, finally, of the thermal diffusivity coefficient of the liquid, are presented.
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