For achieving highest peak powers in a solid state laser (SSL) system, significant energy output and short pulses are necessary. For mode-locked lasers, it is well-known from the Fourier theorem that the largest gain bandwidths produce the narrowest pulse-widths; thus are transform limited. For an inhomogeneously broadened line width of a laser medium, if the intensity of pulses follow a Gaussian function, then the resulting mode-locked pulse will have a Gaussian shape with the emission bandwidth/pulse duration relationship of pulse ≥ 0.4402/c. Thus, for high peak power SSL systems, laser designers incorporate gain materials capable of broad emission bandwidths. Available energy outputs from a phosphate glass host doped with rare-earth ions are unparalleled. Unfortunately, the emission bandwidths achievable from glass based gain materials are typically many factors smaller when compared to the Ti:Sapphire crystal. In order to overcome this limitation, a hybrid “mixed” laser glass amplifier – OPCPA approach was developed. The Texas petawatt laser that is currently in operation at the University of Texas-Austin and producing high peak powers uses this hybrid architecture. In this mixed-glass laser design, a phosphate and a silicate glass is used in series to achieve a broader bandwidth required before compression. Though proven, this technology is still insufficient for the future compact petawatt and exawatt systems capable of producing high energies and shorter pulse durations. New glasses with bandwidths that are two and three times larger than what is now available from glass hosts is needed if there is to be an alternative to Ti:Sapphire for laser designers. In this paper, we present new materials that may meet the necessary characteristics and demonstrate the laser and emission characteristics these through the internal and external studies.
Retina-safe operation in open-air is of high interest to the next generation of lasers that are being utilized for many industrial, defense and medical applications. Those wavelengths that are considered to be the best for retina safe operations (also called eye-safe) fall in the range between 1400nm and1800nm. This wavelength region also coincides with the low loss window of fused silica fibers used for optical fiber communications [1], where the S and C bands near 1500nm are heavily utilized for long range communications due to the lowest attenuation losses possible in the fiber. The trivalent Er ion can produce direct emission into the 1540 nm wavelength, thus, it is the rare-earth emitter of choice for many eye-safe applications. In recent years, the need for high beam quality under passive operation in open air applications have renewed interest in Er-doped bulk glasses as the gain material of choice for solid-state eye-safe lasers.
The need for performance stability under a broad operating range from -400C to 1000C without active cooling is a challenge for amorphous gain materials. Moreover, there is very little known about how temperature may affect performance. In this study, we describe our first attempts to understand material behavior by systematically analyzing temperature driven variations exhibited in absorption and emission from the commercially available gain materials. As part of these investigations, we will also present our method for assessing quantum efficiency through measurements for critical evaluation from laser community at large.
Phosphate glasses are known to produce high gain for the Er3+ emission into 1540nm, especially when sensitized with Yb. Unfortunately, the phosphate glass matrix tends to be weaker than other available amorphous materials. Unlike crystalline materials, glass chemical structure around the active ion can be optimized for both material strength and laser output. Reported here is the result from a design of experiment that was completed in order to strengthen the glass structure of a commercially available phosphate laser glass without impacting its laser output efficiencies. Laser output performance results for the glass that met the targeted thermal and mechanical limits are presented. This effort concludes with a scalable material that is ultimately released to the commercial market.
Phosphate glasses are known to produce high gain for the Er3+ emission into 1540nm, especially when sensitized with Yb. Unfortunately, the phosphate glass matrix tends to be weaker than other available amorphous materials. Being that glasses are engineerable, a study was initiated in order to strengthen the glass structure of a commercially available phosphate laser glass without impacting its laser output efficiencies. Secondly, we seek to understand the impact of the various glass modifiers that drive thermal shock resistance of phosphate glasses on the Er emission manifolds. This report details a number of compositions that were designed, melted and analyzed for properties. Laser output performance results for the glasses that met the targeted parameters are presented.
Laser design codes utilize laser properties provided by materials manufacturers for performance modeling. Large scale manufacturing of materials during compositional developments for a particular laser design is not economically feasible. Nevertheless, the laser properties derived from the available sample volumes must be reliable and reproducible. In recent years, as a result of the renewed interest in novel glasses for ultrafast laser applications, SCHOTT has developed improved measurements and methodologies for providing the most accurate information possible to laser scientists. Even though the J-O method is robust and time tested for the spectroscopic characterization of Nd3+, the accuracy of the results requires reliable measurements. This paper outlines the J-O approximation for manifold to manifold transitions, measurements needed, and some of the pitfalls to watch for during the collection of data for Nd-doped materials.
In this study we examine the effects on lithographic performance due to repetitive cleans on a mask patterned for use in
extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL). Exposures were carried out at the SEMATECH Berkeley micro-exposure tool
(MET) on both a cleaned mask and a reference (uncleaned) mask with the same mask architectures. The performance is
measured against the process window for lines and spaces, line edge roughness (LER), and contact size variation
measured using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Mask properties such as surface roughness were used as metrics
of the cleaning process effects. We also introduce a new method involving the correlation in LER of a single line from
exposure to exposure at the same dose and focus. If mask cleaning were to introduce significant damage to either the
capping layer or the absorber, we might expect an increase in LER correlation from exposure to exposure of the same
feature, as uncorrelated effects due to the resist cause a second order change depending on aerial image contrast loss.
We look at these metrics on the same mask used in previous cleans studies, now for a 50X and 75X cleans.
In this study, the impact of repetitive cleaning of EUV masks on reflectivity, surface roughness and lithographic
performance was evaluated. Two masks were fabricated and patterned with the same layout using commercially
available EUV blanks; one was subjected to 33 cleaning cycles and the other was kept as a reference. Wafers were
patterned using both masks on the SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3 NA micro-field exposure tool (MET), and the data was
used to determine process latitude and line edge roughness at regular intervals between cleaning cycles. Additionally,
mask surface roughness and EUV reflectivity were also measured. After a total of 33 cleaning cycles, minimal
degradation was observed in lithographic performance compared to the reference mask, as well as surface roughness and
reflectivity.
Although Extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) is now well into the commercialization phase, critical challenges
remain in the development of EUV resist materials. The major issue for the 22-nm half-pitch node remains
simultaneously meeting resolution, line-edge roughness (LER), and sensitivity requirements. Although several materials
have met the resolution requirements, LER and sensitivity remain a challenge. As we move beyond the 22-nm node,
however, even resolution remains a significant challenge. Chemically amplified resists have yet to demonstrate the
required resolution at any speed or LER for 16-nm half pitch and below. Going to non-chemically amplified resists,
however, 16-nm resolution has been achieved with a LER of 2 nm but a sensitivity of only 70 mJ/cm2.
For this paper, we evaluated the impact of repetitive cleans on a photomask that was fabricated and patterned for
extreme ultraviolet lithography exposure. The lithographic performance of the cleaned mask, in terms of process window
and line edge roughness, was monitored with the SEMATECH Berkeley micro-exposure tool (MET). Each process
measurement of the cleaned mask was compared to a reference mask with the same mask architecture. Both masks were
imaged on the same day in order to eliminate any process-related measurement uncertainties. The cleaned mask was
periodically monitored with atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements and pattern widths were monitored using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, reflectivity changes were also tracked with the aid of witness plate
measurements. At the conclusion of this study, the mask under evaluation was cleaned 22 times; with none of the
evaluation techniques showing any significant degradation in performance.
Our previous work estimated the expected out-of-band (OOB) flare contribution at the wafer level assuming that there is
a given amount of OOB at the collector focus. We found that the OOB effects are wavelength, resist, and pattern
dependent. In this paper, results from rigorous patterning evaluation of multiple OOB-exposed resists using the
SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3-NA MET are presented. A controlled amount of OOB is applied to the resist films before
patterning is completed with the MET. LER and process performance above and at the resolution limit and at the
resolution limits are evaluated and presented. The results typically show a negative impact on LER and process
performance after the OOB exposures except in the case of one resist formulation, performance improvement was
observed.
Several high-performing resists identified in the past two years have been exposed at the 0.3-numerical-aperture
(NA) SEMATECH Berkeley Microfield Exposure Tool (BMET) with an engineered dipole illumination optimized
for 18-nm half pitch. Five chemically amplified platforms were found to support 20-nm dense patterning at a
film thickness of approximately 45 nm. At 19-nm half pitch, however, scattered bridging kept all of these resists
from cleanly resolving larger areas of dense features. At 18-nm half pitch, none of the resists were are able to
cleanly resolve a single line within a bulk pattern. With this same illumination a directly imageable metal oxide
hardmask showed excellent performance from 22-nm half pitch to 17-nm half pitch, and good performance at
16-nm half pitch, closely following the predicted aerial image contrast. This indicates that observed limitations
of the chemically amplified resists are indeed coming from the resist and not from a shortcoming of the exposure
tool. The imageable hardmask was also exposed using a Pseudo Phase-Shift-Mask technique and achieved clean
printing of 15-nm half pitch lines and modulation all the way down to the theoretical 12.5-nm resolution limit
of the 0.3-NA SEMATECH BMET.
As commercialization of extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) progresses, direct industry activities are being focused
on near term concerns. The question of long term extendibility of EUVL, however, remains crucial given the magnitude
of the investments yet required to make EUVL a reality. Extendibility questions are best addressed using advanced
research tools such as the SEMATECH Berkeley microfield exposure tool (MET) and actinic inspection tool (AIT).
Utilizing Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's Advanced Light Source facility as the light source, these tools
benefit from the unique properties of synchrotron light enabling research at nodes generations ahead of what is possible
with commercial tools.
The MET for example uses extremely bright undulator radiation to enable a lossless fully programmable coherence
illuminator. Using such a system, resolution enhancing illuminations achieving k1 factors of 0.25 can readily be attained.
Given the MET numerical aperture of 0.3, this translates to an ultimate resolution capability of 12 nm. Using such
methods, the SEMATECH Berkeley MET has demonstrated resolution in resist to 16-nm half pitch and below in an
imageable spin-on hard mask. At a half pitch of 16 nm, this material achieves a line-edge roughness of 2 nm with a
correlation length of 6 nm. These new results demonstrate that the observed stall in ultimate resolution progress in
chemically amplified resists is a materials issue rather than a tool limitation. With a resolution limit of 20-22 nm, the
CAR champion from 2008 remains as the highest performing CAR tested to date.
To enable continued advanced learning in EUV resists, SEMATECH has initiated a plan to implement a 0.5 NA
microfield tool at the Advanced Light Source synchrotron facility. This tool will be capable of printing down to 8-nm
half pitch.
To quantify the roughness contributions to speckle, a programmed roughness substrate was fabricated with a number of
areas having different roughness magnitudes. The substrate was then multilayer coated. Atomic force microscopy
(AFM) surface maps were collected before and after multilayer deposition. At-wavelength reflectance and total
integrated scattering measurements were also completed. Angle resolved scattering based power spectral densities are
directly compared to the AFM based power spectra. We show that AFM overpredicts the roughness in the picometer
measurements range. The mask was then imaged at-wavelength for the direct characterization of the aerial image speckle
using the SEMATECH Berkeley Actinic Inspection Tool (AIT). Modeling was used to test the effectiveness of the
different metrologies in predicting the measured aerial-image speckle. AIT measured contrast values are 25% or more
than the calculated image contrast values obtained using the measured rms roughness input. The extent to which the
various metrologies can be utilized for specifying tolerable roughness limits on EUV masks is still to be determined.
Further modeling and measurements are being planned.
Microfield exposure tools (METs) play a crucial role in the development of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) resists and masks.
One of these tools is the SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3 numerical aperture (NA) MET. Using conventional illumination this
tool is limited to approximately 22-nm half pitch resolution. However, resolution enhancement techniques have been
used to push the patterning capabilities of this tool to half pitches of 18 nm and below. This resolution was achieved in a
new imageable hardmask which also supports contact printing down to 22 nm with conventional illumination. Along
with resolution, line-edge roughness is another crucial hurdle facing EUV resists. Much of the resist LER, however, can
be attributed to the mask. We have shown that intenssionally aggressive mask cleaning on an older generation mask
causes correlated LER in photoresist to increase from 3.4 nm to 4.0 nm. We have also shown that new generation EUV
masks (100 pm of substrate roughness) can achieve correlated LER values of 1.1 nm, a 3× improvement over the
correlated LER of older generation EUV masks (230 pm of substrate roughness). Finally, a 0.5-NA MET has been
proposed that will address the needs of EUV development at the 16-nm node and beyond. The tool will support an
ultimate resolution of 8 nm half-pitch and generalized printing using conventional illumination down to 12 nm half pitch.
To accurately estimate the flare contribution from the out-of-band (OOB), the integration of a DUV source into the
SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3-NA Micro-field Exposure tool is proposed, enabling precisely controlled exposures along
with the EUV patterning of resists in vacuum. First measurements evaluating the impact of bandwidth selected
exposures with a table-top set-up and subsequent EUV patterning show significant impact on line-edge roughness and
process performance. We outline a simulation-based method for computing the effective flare from resist sensitive
wavelengths as a function of mask pattern types and sizes. This simulation method is benchmarked against measured
OOB flare measurements and the results obtained are in agreement.
Line-edge roughness (LER) remains the most significant challenge facing the development of extreme ultraviolet (EUV)
resist. The mask, however, has been found to be a significant contributor to image-plane LER. This has long been
expected based on modeling and has more recently been demonstrated experimentally. Problems arise from both maskabsorber
LER as well as mask multilayer roughness leading to random phase variations in the reflected beam and
consequently speckle. Understanding the implications this has on mask requirements for the 22-nm half pitch node and
below is crucial. Modeling results indicate a replicated surface roughness (RSR) specification of 50 pm and a ruthenium
capping layer roughness specification of 440 pm. Moreover, modeling indicates that it is crucial to achieve the current
ITRS specifications for mask absorber LER which is significantly smaller than current capabilities.
Line edge roughness evolutions in EUV resist patterns are investigated. Three dimensional scanning electron microscopy
images show the pattern sidewall roughness to be highly anisotropic and the roughness to be propagating from the resistsubstrate
interface up the resist pattern sidewall. In ultrathin resist films, (film thickness ca. 100 nm and below)
roughness is found to be fully correlated from the resist-substrate interface to the resist-air interface. This behavior is
seen regardless of the resist platforms being used.
Underlayer stack roughness contributions to the pattern sidewall roughness leading to resist LER were examined and no
correlations between the two were found. At the same time, the chemical properties of the underlayer stacks are shown
to have strong influences on the resist roughness and process performance. Exact mechanisms behind this are not clearly
understood at present.
For the commercialization of extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL), discharge or laser-produced, pulsed plasma light sources are being considered. These sources are known to emit into a broad range of wavelengths that are collectively referred to as out-of-band (OOB) radiation by lithographers. Multilayer EUV optics reflect OOB radiation emitted by the EUV sources onto the wafer plane, resulting in unwanted background exposure of the resist (flare) and reduced image contrast. The reflectivity of multilayer optics at the target wavelength of 13.5 nm is comparable to that of their reflectivity in the deep ultraviolet (DUV) and UV regions from 100 to 350 nm. The aromatic molecular backbones of many of the resists used for EUV are equally absorptive at specific DUV wavelengths as well. To study the effect of these wavelengths on imaging performance in a real system, we are in the process of integrating a DUV source into the Sematech Berkeley 0.3-NA microfield exposure tool (MET). We present the simulation-based imaging results predicting the potential impact of OOB based on known resist, mask, and multilayer conditions. It should be noted that because the projection optics work equally well as imaging optics at DUV wavelengths, OOB radiation cannot be treated simply as uniform background or DC flare.
Achieving line-edge/width roughness (LER/LWR) specifications remains as one of the most significant challenges
facing the commercialization of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography. LER is typically viewed as a resist problem;
however, recent simulation results have shown that the mask can also be a significant contributor. Problems arise from
both mask absorber LER as well as mask multilayer roughness leading to random phase variations in the reflected beam
and consequently speckle. Here we describe these effects in detail and explore how they will impact EUV mask
requirements for the 22-nm half-pitch node and beyond. Process window analysis yields mask multilayer roughness
specifications on the order of 50 pm.
Microfield exposure tools (METs) continue to play a dominant role in the development of extreme ultraviolet (EUV)
resists. One of these tools is the SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3-NA MET operating as a SEMATECH resist and mask test
center. Here we present an update summarizing the latest resist test and characterization results. The relatively small
numerical aperture and limited illumination settings expected from 1st generation EUV production tools make resist
resolution a critical issue even at the 32-nm node. In this presentation, sub 22 nm half pitch imaging results of EUV
resists are reported. We also present contact hole printing at the 30-nm level. Although resist development has
progressed relatively well in the areas of resolution and sensitivity, line-edge-roughness (LER) remains a significant
concern. Here we present a summary of recent LER performance results and consider the effect of system-level
contributors to the LER observed from the SEMATECH Berkeley microfield tool.
For the commercialization of extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL), discharge or laser produced, pulsed plasma
light sources are being considered. These sources are known to emit into a broad range of wavelengths that are
collectively referred to as the out-of-band (OOB) radiation by lithographers. Multilayer EUV optics reflect OOB
radiation emitted by the EUV sources onto the wafer plane resulting in unwanted background exposure of the
resist (flare) and reduced image contrast. The reflectivity of multilayer optics at the target wavelength of 13.5
nm is comparable to that of their reflectivity in the deep ultraviolet (DUV) and UV regions from 100-350 nm.
The aromatic molecular backbones of many of the resists used for EUV are equally absorptive at specific DUV
wavelengths as well. In order to study the effect of these wavelengths on imaging performance in a real system,
we are in the process of integrating a DUV source into the SEMATECH Berkeley 0.3-NA Microfield Exposure
Tool (MET). The MET plays an active role in advanced research in resist and mask development for EUVL
and as such, we will utilize this system to systematically evaluate the imaging impact of DUV wavelengths in a
EUV system. In this paper, we present the optical design for the new DUV component and the simulation-based
imaging results predicting the potential impact of OOB based on known resist, mask, and multilayer conditions.
It should be noted that because the projection optics work equally well as imaging optics at DUV wavelengths,
the OOB radiation cannot be treated simply as uniform background or DC flare.
In this work we present the status of our high repetition-rate/high power EUV source facility. The masslimited
target concept has demonstrated high conversion efficiencies (CE) previously, with precision solid
state lasers. Currently, experiments are in progress with high power high repetition-rate (3-4 kHz) Qswitched
laser modules. We present a new dedicated facility for the high power EUV source. Also, we
present a precision EUV energy-meter, which is developed for absolute EUV energy measurements.
Spectral measurements of the tin-doped droplet laser plasma are performed with a flat-field spectrometer
(FFS) with a back-illuminated CCD camera. We address the issue of maintaining the calibration of the
EUV optics during source operation at non-optimum intensity at high repetition-rate, which is required for
CE improvement studies. Here we present the unique metrology for measuring EUV energies under a
variety of irradiation conditions without degrading EUV optics, even at high repetition rates (multi-kHz).
Tin-doped droplet target has been integrated with several lasers including high power high repetition rate lasers
and demonstrated high conversion efficiencies for all the lasers. This implies the EUV source power is linearly
increasing as the laser frequency goes higher. The target exhibit very low out-of-band radiation and debris emission.
The drawback of increasing the repetition rate of the target and the laser will be limited. The total amount
of tin consumed for a EUVL source system is also small enough to be operated for a long term without large effort
for recycling of the target materials. We address and demonstrate in this paper the primary issues associated
with long-term high power EUV sources for high volume manufacturing (HVM) using tin-doped droplet target.
Hydrogen-like line emission from lithium has long been considered a candidate for EUV light source for lithography. We have completed the evaluation of the potential of lithium as a laser-plasma source, both theoretically and experimentally. Theoretical calculations show optimum intensity region for lithium for attaining high conversion is close to 5.0 x 1011 W/cm2, with plasma temperature near 50 eV. Experimental studies compare directly, the conversion efficiency and optimum irradiation conditions for both planar tin and lithium solid targets. Best conversion efficiency found in this study is 2% for lithium, while CE measured is better than 4% for tin target at identical experimental conditions.
Light sources based on laser plasmas using tin as target material are known to provide high conversion efficiency of laser power to emission in the 13.5 nm spectral region. In addition, laser plasmas produced from microscopic droplet targets enable the utilization of the mass-limited concept which minimizes the effect of target debris produced from the laser plasma interaction. By combining the mass-limited target concept and tin as the choice of target material, we are developing an extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) light source that can supply high power while remaining essentially debris-free. This source uses tin-doped microscopic droplet liquid targets that are generated at high-repetition rates (>30 kHz), which allows convenient upward power scaling when coupled with a high averaged-power laser.
Detailed studies of the radiation from this source have been made using a precision Nd:YAG laser. Broad parametric studies of the conversion efficiency along with in-band spectroscopy of this EUV source have been performed. The parametric dependence of conversion efficiency is established based on measurements made by the Flying Circus diagnostic tool and a calibrated high-resolution flat-field spectrometer. These measurements have been independently confirmed by the Flying Circus 2 team.
The 13 nm emission that results from laser plasmas created from tin targets, results from a milliard of transitions occurring in many ions of tin (Sn6+-Sn13+). Understanding the energy manifolds within these multiple states will further our ability to manipulate energy into the narrow emission band demanded by EUV Lithography. A combined experimental theoretical program is underway to measure and interpret the detailed EUV emission spectra from laser plasmas suitable for EUVL, particularly mass-limited droplet laser plasmas. We employ high resolution spectroscopy in the 2 - 60 nm wavelength regions to characterize the emission from the plasma. This is interpreted with the aid of combined hydrodynamic/ radiation transport computer models. The results of this study will have impact on the in-band EUV conversion efficiency, estimation of the out-of-band short-wavelength emission, and in the development of electron temperature plasma diagnostics.
Detailed understanding of the complex UTA emission from Xe and Sn laser plasmas is imperative to the development of efficient 13.5 nm sources for EUVL. We are developing a comprehensive theoretical modeling approach to these sources, utilizing state-of-the-art hydrodynamic and radiation transport plasma codes. These models are specifically applied to Xe and Sn-doped microscopic droplet targets laser-plasmas irradiated with nanosecond laser pulses. The plasma expansion models are compared to experimental determinations of the plasma electron density distributions. The output of the radiation transport code is used to interpret details of the spectral emission measured from these plasmas over a broad range of parameters.
A high repetition-rate laser plasma source, possessing distinct radiation and particle emission characteristics, is now a principal candidate light source for the next generation of technology for the fabrication of computer chips. For these sources to satisfy this critical need they will need to meet unprecedented levels of performance, stability and lifetime. We review here some of the principal diagnostics of the EUV radiation that are now being utilized in the metrology, spectroscopy and imaging of these sources.
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