The key component of a quantum cascade vertical cavity surface emitting laser (QC VCSEL) is a monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG) that replaces one of the distributed Bragg mirrors (DBR). The grating induces the polarization component necessary to stimulated emission in quantum cascade active regions embedded in MHCG. The complex electrical and optical phenomena defining the performance of the structure depends on the grating parameters (stripes dimensions, position, thickness and doping concentrations). This work presents optimization of QC VCSELs that is aimed to achieve minimal thresholds currents in the pulse operation regime.
Quantum-cascade lasers (QCL) enable emission in a broad range of infrared radiation unavailable for convectional quantum well bipolar lasers. However in-plane geometry of QCLs hinders achieving properties required in numerous applications which are inherently possessed by vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). In proposed design of QC-VCSEL the role of top mirror and element inducing component of electric field necessary to stimulated emission in quantum cascades is served by subwavelength monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG) in which quantum cascade active region is embedded. This paper based on numerical analysis presents influence of QC-VCSELs configuration details on threshold currents and mode distributions.
Presently quantum-cascade (QC) lasers enable emission at the wavelengths ranging from infrared to terahertz making them ideal light source for the distant detection of harmful gases and free-space optical communication. In those applications, requirements for the lasers include: narrow, single-fundamental-mode operation, low-divergent emitted beam, low threshold current and high speed modulation. Those properties are inherently owned by vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). However, when a QC is embedded into conventional vertical cavity, stimulated emission is impossible, because of the absence of the vertical electromagnetic wave component, which makes fundamentally impossible fabrication of QC VCSELs in their conventional design.
We propose a design of QC VCSEL in which top DBR mirror is replaced with a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG). QCs are embedded within the MHCG stripes where the vertical component of the electromagnetic field is induced, enabling stimulated emission from the QCs.
Using a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model combined with an electrical model and gain model we discuss the distribution of the optical field, threshold current, emitted optical power and wall-plug efficiency of a 9 micro m AlInAs/InGaAs/InP QC VCSEL. Our anticipation shows that threshold current of QC VCSELs can be as low as 0.09 mA and the wall-plug efficiency at the level of 4%. We consider methods of current injection to active regions as well as methods of current and optical confinement.
The fabrication possibility of QC VCSELs opens new perspectives for merging the advantages of VCSELs with those of QCLs.
Quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (QC VCSELs) [1] combine features
of VCSELs in respect of low threshold current, high quality of output beam, possible high speed modulation and fabrication of two dimensional phase-coupled arrays and quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) due to their emission in a broad range of infrared radiation up to about 100 m.
In those structures vertical resonance and stimulated emission of photons is possible due to embedding QCs in the stripes of a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG). Unipolar QCs provide flexibility in the number of the active regions used in the structure, leading to designs with distributed active regions enabling efficient stimulated emission. The expected high performance of QC VCSELs relies on sophisticated designing of MHCG and active regions which takes into account distributions of the QC VCSEL modes. Spatial distributions of modes are highly unintuitive and anticipation of them requires the use of numerical methods solving fully vectorial Maxwell eigenvalue problem.
In this article, we present the principles of QC VCSELs designing illustrated by examples of optimization of a structure emitting at the wavelength of 9 µm. Particularly, we demonstrate optimization of the MHCGs, the resonant cavities and the numbers of active regions in QC VCSELs. In this contribution, optimal designs with respect to minimal threshold current and maximal output power are presented.
[1] T. Czyszanowski: Quantum Cascade Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. vol.29, pp. 351-354, 2018
A new structure of semiconductor lasers called the quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface emitting laser (QC VCSEL) is proposed in the present paper. A structure of the QC VCSEL is a cross of the quantum-cascade laser (QCL) and the vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL). The QC VCSEL is expected to demonstrate important advantages of laser emission of both the QCL and the VCSEL without their drawbacks. In the QC VCSEL, the monolithic highcontrast grating (MHCG) structure is applied to cope with the fundamental requirement of the polarization direction of the electro-magnetic radiation perpendicular to the quantum cascade (QC) necessary to initiate within it the stimulated emission. The QC VCSEL structure recommended in the present paper is a result of the advanced modeling with the aid of our comprehensive self-consistent optical-electrical model.
This paper shows the possibility of stimulated emission in quantum cascades (QC) embedded in a vertical cavity and proposes a design for the first quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (QC VCSEL). In the proposed design, the top VCSEL mirror is a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG), which serves as both an optical coupler and as the region in which the vertical component of the electrical field is induced, enabling stimulating emission from the quantum cascades. Using a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model, a stand-alone MHCG is analysed in terms of its possible use as a QC VCSEL mirror. The distribution of the optical field and threshold gain in VCSELs with QC embedded in MHCG are also simulated.
This paper proposes a design for the monolithic high-contrast mirror designed for infrared radiation. We use a fully vectorial model to search for the construction parameters of semiconductor monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG) mirror providing maximal power reflectance. Such mirror can play a role of optical coupler, being alternative for distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). DBRs for mid- and long-wavelength infrared radiation are technologically highly demanding in terms of uniform quarter-wavelength layers control. Our results comprise a complete image of possible highly reflecting MHCG mirror constructions for potential use in optoelectronic infrared devices and systems.
In this paper, an impact of mounting of structures of nitride laser bars their performance, emitted optical power in particular, is presented. The laser bars of nitride edge-emitting lasers of ridge-waveguide type the InGaN/GaN active areas have been considered. Laser performance has been analysed with the aid of an advanced self-consistent thermalelectrical model, calibrated using experimental data for a single diode laser. The simulated laser bars emit at 408 nm. An optimal number of laser emitters and their various arrangments have been considered. An appliation of Cu heat sinks of various dimensions as well as the p-side-up or the p-side-down laser configurations have been analysed. Moreover a possible application of a diamond heat spreader has been also taken into account.
Different structures of nitride Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) have been developed in recent years. However there is still many problems with such constructions, especially with electrical and optical confinement, current injection and construction and fabrication of mirrors. In this paper we present novel approach to nitride VCSEL designing. We investigated structure with tunnel junction (TJ) and top and bottom dielectric distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). Using our three-dimensional self-consistent model we investigated thermal and electrical properties of such laser. We also proposed replacing bottom DBR by monolithic high contrast grating mirror (MHCG) and presented optical properties of VCSEL with such mirrors.
A self-consistent pulse-operation model of an InP-based 1300-nm AlInGaAs vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode laser
with filled-photonic-crystal is presented. It is shown that low threshold characteristics and strong transverse-mode
discrimination can be simultaneously achieved for optimized photonic crystal structure for broad optical apertures.
According to a generally known rule of thumb, a stable single-fundamental-mode operation is achieved in standard
VCSELs with relatively uniform radial active-region gain profiles. However, in analogous detuned oxide-confined
VCSELs, lasing thresholds of higher-order modes may surprisingly be lower than that of the fundamental one. The
above unusual VCSEL behavior is explained with the aid of the comprehensive self-consistent simulation. It has
happened to be a result of a strong wavelength dependence of the active-region optical gain in highly detuned oxide-confined
VCSELs, because of which longer-wavelength higher-order cavity modes may exhibit much higher modal gain
values than that of the fundamental one. For the 10-μm-diameter mesa top-emitting 1.3-μm GaInNAs/GaAs QW VCSEL
design, the optical active region gain spectrum exhibits its maximum for the wavelength distinctly lower than that, for
which the VCSEL cavity and the DBR mirrors have been designed. As a result, the transverse LP71 mode, whose
wavelength (1291.1 nm) is close enough to the maximal optical gain, has happened to be the lowest-threshold mode
(2221 cm-1). For the LP71 threshold voltage, the fundamental LP01 mode (1300.7 nm) manifests lower threshold (1432
cm-1), as expected, but it is still considerably higher than its available modal gain (958 cm-1).
In the paper, the comparative analysis of the room-temperature (RT) continuous-wave (CW) threshold operation of
various designs of oxide-confined (OC) vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode lasers (VCSELs) is carried out using the
1.3-&mgr;m OC intra-cavity-contacted GaAs-based quantum-well (GaIn)(NAs)/GaAs VCSEL as a typical example. The
analysis has been carried out with the aid of the comprehensive fully self-consistent three-dimensional optical-electrical-thermal-
gain model. Different VCSEL designs have been found to be optimal depending on their application. An impact
of the built-in radial confining mechanisms created by oxide apertures, i.e. an influence of their diameters and
localizations on radial confinements of both the current injection into VCSEL active regions and electromagnetic fields
of successive cavity modes, has been investigated. A new approach is proposed to enhance CW RT single-fundamental-mode
operation in higher-output OC VCSELs. One of their oxide apertures should be shifted to the node position of the
resonator standing wave where it is working as the electrical aperture only. Then diameters of both apertures may be
changed independently giving an additional degree of freedom for VCSEL designing which enables their optimization.
Designing strategy to enhance mode selectivity of higher-output vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode lasers (VCSELs) is presented using the oxide-confined GaAs-based (GaIn)(NAs)/GaAs quantum-well VCSEL with two oxide apertures on both sides of its central active region as a typical example. A general strategy is to shift one aperture to the node position of the resonator standing wave where it is working as the electrical aperture only. Then diameters of both the apertures may be changed independently giving an additional degree of freedom for VCSEL designing. The comprehensive optical-electrical-thermal-gain self-consistent approach is used to simulate anticipated performance characteristics of the modified VCSEL. The single fundamental mode operation has been predicted in a large-size device with the 10-μm-diameter active region even for 80 K active-region temperature increase over the room ambient temperature. A similar radial waveguiding may be also produced in VCSELs with the aid of photonic crystals which have been found to create a very efficient discrimination mechanism for higher-order transverse modes. Therefore photonic-crystal confined VCSELs seem to be very promising structures in their future applications.
Modern communication in absolute secrecy requires creation of new intrinsically secure quantum communication channels. It is particularly necessary during the first connection between two parties establishing then in assumed unconditional security the secret cryptographic key which is supposed to be used afterwards during normal information exchanging. This new emerging field of quantum information technology is based on a new type of light sources, in which numbers of emitted photons can be carefully controlled. Especially advantageous are sources of single photons emitted at strictly predetermined moments, so called single-photon devices. Then any possible eavesdropper activity will be followed by some unavoidable disturbance which alerts both communication parties to an event. In the present paper, the Purcell effect associated with enhancement of spontaneous emission coupled to a resonator is explained, methods used to produce streams of antibunched photons are given, mechanisms applied to control carrier injection into quantum dots are shown and some possible designs of single-photon devices are presented and described. These devices are based on taking advantage of both the Purcell effect and the atom-like energy spectrum of quantum dots.
The advanced three-dimensional fully self-consistent optical-electrical-thermal-gain model of the 1.3-μm (GaIn)(NAs)/GaAs vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) has been developed to simulate its room-temperature (RT) continuous-wave (CW) performance characteristics and to enable its structure optimisation. The standard GaInNAs VCSEL structure with an intracavity-contacted configuration exhibits very nonuniform current injection into its active region, whereas a uniform current injection is important in long-wavelength VCSELs for low threshold, high-efficiency and stable-mode operation. Therefore we decided to insert an additional tunnel junction within the active-region neighbourhood. The tunnel junction is shown to enhance effectively hole injection via a lateral electron current, with only a modest increase (a small penalty) in voltage drop and series resistance compared to standard devices.
Performance of various possible designs of 400-nm nitride vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) has been analysed with the aid of the advanced three-dimensional (3D) thermal-electrical-optical-gain self-consistent threshold simulation. It has been demonstrated that it is practically impossible to reach the fundamental-mode operation in nitride VCSELs of the traditional design with two ring contacts. To enhance this desired operation, uniformity of current injection into VCSEL active regions should be dramatically improved. Therefore, we focused our research on designs with tunnel junctions and/or a semitransparent contact. In particular, it has been proved that the design with two cascading active regions, two tunnel junctions and a semitransparent contact may offer the most promising room-temperature performance characteristics for both pulse and continuous-wave operation. In particular, this design offers high mode selectivity with distinct fundamental transverse mode domination. Our simulations reveal, that the thickness and localization of a semitransparent contact as well as localization of active regions and tunnel junctions are crucial for a successful construction designing.
An advanced 3D model of a room-temperature (RT) continuous-wave (CW) VCSEL operation is used to investigate a possibility of reaching a RT CW single-fundamental-mode operation of nitride VCSELs. A nitride VCSEL of a traditional, double-ring-contacted structure has been found to generate at RT simultaneously many higher-order transverse modes which is a direct consequence of an unavoidable strong current-crowding effect at edges of its active region. Various possible structure modifications of nitride VCSELs have been examined to improve uniformity of the current injection into active regions which seems to be crucial for achieving their RT lasing operation and improving their mode selectivity. Both semi-transparent contacts and tunnel junctions have been suggested as useful tools to enhance considerably radial current flows in the nitride VCSEL structure. They should be, however, properly arranged within the laser cavity not only to improve the radial current sperding between the top ring contact and the centrally lcoated active region but also they should not introduce additional optical losses within a semi-transparent contact and highly doped tunnel junctions.
In the present paper, a possibility of a manufacturing nitride VCSELs is discussed. It is evident from the analysis, that the VCSEL configurations of nitride lasers need more advanced technology then their edge-emitting counterparts. In particular, extremely high-reflective low- loss resonator mirrors and extraordinarily high quality, uniform structure layers are necessary to reach in nitride VCSELs a laser action at room temperature. Besides, until now there has not been found efficient technological process to define precisely current paths for lateral injection. Nevertheless, a rapid progress in nitride technology is still observed which may finally enable us to manufacture reliable and efficient nitride VCSELs earlier than it is generally expected.
Kinetics of AlAs steam oxidation process is investigated theoretically in cylindrically symmetric mesa structures. Under the assumption of a steady-state process, compact analytical formulae are obtained for time evolution of the oxidation front and for the oxidation rate. Values of main oxidation process parameters are extracted from existing experimental data for T = 350 °C and the layer thickness d = 250 nm. The oxidation rate is found to first decrease from its initial value of B/A and remain almost constant for a large range of intermediate sizes of unoxidized region. When the unoxidized region becomes very small, a rapid increase in this rate up to the value of B/[A(1-β)] is predicted. This renders the process control of fabricating miniature oxide apertures with diameters < 2 μm extremely difficult. Comparison with 1D model of oxidation process in cartesian geometry reveals significant differences in time evolution of the oxidation front. Understanding these differences is important for achieving a good control of the oxidation process in cylindrical structures.
An integrated device and package 3D model is developed to computationally investigate the thermal crosstalk in arrays of proton-implanted top-surface emitting lasers. A self- consistent electro-thermo-opto model is employed for the device. The anisotropic thermal property is considered for the package model. Temperature dependency of critical device and material properties is included, as well as multiple heat generation mechanisms. Effects of spacing on lasing performance and non-uniformity of VCSEL arrays are found significant. Thermal crosstalk becomes worse for increased sizes and packaging densities of laser arrays. Degraded laser performance is found due to the thermal crosstalk, especially for the lasers closest to the center of the array package.
Threshold analysis of nitride VCSELs is performed. Double- heterostructure VCSELs are found to be much less sensitive to optical losses than their quantum-well counterparts.
The comprehensive, three-dimensional, thermal-electrical- optical self-consistent model of the gain-guided vertical- cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) is applied to study behavior of its transverse modes. Many intensity maxima of higher-order modes were found to disappear because of a complex interplay between a real guiding effect and a gain antiguiding effect in VCSEL resonators. Therefore number of intensity maxima in experimental intensity profiles can not be used as an indicator of the mode order. Radiation losses of transverse modes were found to increase with an increase in their order.
In the present paper, vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are briefly compared with edge-emitting lasers, general principles of their simulation are formulated, an importance of self-consistent approach in modeling of semiconductor lasers is proved and main results of VCSEL simulations are given for etched-well VCSELs and for proton- implanted top-surface-emitting lasers.
A self-consistent analytical thermal-electrical model is developed to simulate thermal properties of etched-well InGaAsP/InP buried-heterostructure VCSELs with dielectric mirrors. The model is then used to investigate the influence of various design parameters on device performance. In particular, we examine the effects of varying the P-cladding doping level, active-region-, mirror-, and well-diameters, solder material, and mirror materials. We find that the dielectric mirrors are the most critical elements of the device. To increase the output power/operation temperature of the device, both mirrors must have high thermal conductivity and minimal scattering loss.
A comprehensive, 3D, thermal-electrical self-consistent finite-element model is described and used to investigate thermal properties of GaAs-AlGaAs proton-implanted top-surface-emitting lasers. Special attention is paid to carrier diffusion within the layer containing the active region and to its influence on temperature profiles. In the model, an analytical approximation is used to describe the 3D current spreading between the annular top contact and the broad- area bottom contact. Temperature dependence of many device and material parameters is included. Multiple heat sources are taken into consideration. The carrier diffusion equation, including injection-current generation, ambipolar diffusion as well as bimolecular and spontaneous recombination terms, is solved numerically using the finite-element method for the layer containing the active region. The results indicate that carrier diffusion strongly influences the distribution of main heat sources. As a result, both current-spreading and heat- spreading phenomena are modified.
We obtain numerical results for the injection current in the active region and the total series electrical resistance of proton-implanted top-surface-emitting lasers with top annular contact. We investigate the variation of the resistance and the current uniformity over a range of values of parameters such as the number of periods in the p-type top spreading region, the active region radius and the specific contact resistance. Approximate analytical expressions are also obtained for the injection current in the confinement region and the agreement between analytical and numerical results is investigated for varying active region radius values.
A new comprehensive thermal-electrical self-consistent model of proton-implanted top-surface-emitting lasers is described. The model is applied to study thermal characteristics of GaAs/AlGa As/AlAs devices with the active-region diameter of 35 micrometers . Our results show that intense heating occurs at pumping currents exceeding 4X threshold. Long tails of radial temperature distribution will result in severe thermal crosstalk if integration of these devices into densely packed 2D arrays were to be attempted. Minimization of electrical series resistance is shown to be very important for improving the device performance.
A new approximate analytical approach is developed and applied to investigate thermal properties of top-surface-emitting vertical- cavity diode lasers (VCSELs) mounted substrate-down. Multilayer structure of distributed-Bragg reflectors is taken into account by considering anisotropic thermal conductivity. Design conditions for minimal thermal resistance in short- and long- wavelength systems are specified for devices with various active- region diameters. Our results indicate that difficulties with obtaining the cw operation of long-wavelength VCSELs are primarily associated with intrinsic properties rather than with their thermal resistance.
Analytical expressions are derived for calculating electrical spreading resistance in vertical- cavity surface-emitting diode lasers. Three contact configurations are considered: annular, circular, and broad-area. Calculations performed for proton-implanted surface-emitting lasers demonstrate that low values of series resistance can be achieved by combining the broad-area or circular contact configuration with a sufficiently large active-region diameter.
A new self-consistent thermal electrical model of proton-implanted top-surface-emitting lasers is applied to study thermal properties of GaAs/AlGaAs/AlAs devices with the active-region diameter of 35 micrometers . The results show that intense heating occurs at pumping currents exceeding 4 times threshold. Minimization of electrical series resistance is shown to be very important for improving the device performance. However, due to p-side up mounting, calculated thermal resistance remains relatively large even when electrical series resistance is very small.
A comprehensive, self-consistent thermal-electrical model of etched-well GaAs/A1GaAs
vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSEL5) is utilized to study thermal properties of cw
operating devices. Various configurations of doping concentration in both cladding layers are
considered. It is shown that significant improvement in controlling excessive heating of VCSELs
can be achieved by relatively straightforward technological means, provided thermal behavior of
the device is well understood. In particular, by increasing the doping level in the P-AlGaAs
layer, the active region temperature can be reduced dramatically. The N-AlGaAs doping level
has a decisive influence on the homogeneity of current injection into the active region.
A self-consistent thermal-electrical model of etched-well GaAs/A1GaAs doubleheterostructure VCSELs is used to optimize an individual device design with the goal of reducing the relative power loss due to heating and maximizing the optical output power. An optimal active-region diameter is determined, such that the excess of supplied power over the cw lasing threshold power at the corresponding active-region temperature is maximum. The role of other structural parameters, such as thicknesses and doping levels of both cladding layers, is also discussed. The single-emitter analysis is then modified to study very-large-size two-dimensional (2-D) VCSEL arrays. Severe crosstalk is predicted for closely packed arrays and conditions are identified for an array configuration that would not suffer from the excessive cross-talk penalty.
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