The BICEP3 and BICEP Array polarimeters are small-aperture refracting telescopes located at the South Pole designed to measure primordial gravitational wave signatures in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) polarization, predicted by inflation. Constraining the inflationary signal requires not only excellent sensitivity, but also careful control of instrumental systematics. Both instruments use antenna-coupled orthogonally polarized detector pairs, and the polarized sky signal is reconstructed by taking the difference in each detector pair. As a result, the differential response between detectors within a pair becomes an important systematic effect we must control. Additionally, mapping the intensity and polarization response in regions away from the main beam can inform how sidelobe levels affect CMB measurements. Extensive calibration measurements are taken in situ every austral summer for control of instrumental systematics and instrument characterisation. In this work, we detail the set of beam calibration measurements that we conduct on the BICEP receivers, from deep measurements of main beam response to polarized beam response and sidelobe mapping. We discuss the impact of these measurements for instrumental systematics studies and design choices for future CMB receivers.
Measurements of B-mode polarization in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) sourced from primordial gravitational waves would provide information on the energy scale of inflation and its potential form. To achieve these goals, one must carefully characterize the Galactic foregrounds, which can be distinguished from the CMB by conducting measurements at multiple frequencies.
BICEP Array (BA) is the latest generation multi-frequency instrument of the BICEP/Keck program, which specifically targets degree-scale primordial B-modes in the CMB. In its final configuration, BA will consist of four small-aperture receivers, spanning six different frequency bands. The BA4 receiver is designed to characterize Galactic dust at 220/270 GHz. This receiver is currently undergoing commissioning at Stanford and is scheduled to deploy to the South Pole during the 2024-2025 austral summer. Here, we will provide an overview of this high frequency receiver, discussing the integration status and test results as it is being commissioned.
Constraining the Galactic foregrounds with multi-frequency Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) observations is an essential step towards ultimately reaching the sensitivity to measure primordial gravitational waves (PGWs), the sign of inflation after the Big-Bang that would be imprinted on the CMB. The BICEP Array is a set of multi-frequency cameras designed to constrain the energy scale of inflation through CMB B-mode searches while also controlling the polarized galactic foregrounds. The lowest frequency BICEP Array receiver (BA1) has been observing from the South Pole since 2020 and provides 30 GHz and 40 GHz data to characterize galactic synchrotron in our CMB maps. In this paper, we present the design of the BA1 detectors and the full optical characterization of the camera including the on-sky performance at the South Pole. The paper also introduces the design challenges during the first observing season including the effect of out-of-band photons on detectors performance. It also describes the tests done to diagnose that effect and the new upgrade to minimize these photons, as well as installing more dichroic detectors during the 2022 deployment season to improve the BA1 sensitivity. We finally report background noise measurements of the detectors with the goal of having photon-noise dominated detectors in both optical channels. BA1 achieves an improvement in mapping speed compared to the previous deployment season.
The BICEP3 Polarimeter is a small aperture, refracting telescope, dedicated to the observation of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) at 95GHz. It is designed to target degree angular scale polarization patterns, in particular the very-much-sought-after primordial B-mode signal, which is a unique signature of cosmic inflation. The polarized signal from the sky is reconstructed by differencing co-localized, orthogonally polarized superconducting Transition Edge Sensor (TES) bolometers. In this work, we present absolute measurements of the polarization response of the detectors for more than approximately 800 functioning detector pairs of the BICEP3 experiment, out of a total of approximately 1000. We use a specifically designed Rotating Polarized Source (RPS) to measure the polarization response at multiple source and telescope boresight rotation angles, to fully map the response over 360 degrees. We present here polarization properties extracted from on-site calibration data taken in January 2022. A similar calibration campaign was performed in 2018, but we found that our constraint was dominated by systematics on the level of approximately 0.5° . After a number of improvements to the calibration set-up, we are now able to report a significantly lower level of systematic contamination. In the future, such precise measurements will be used to constrain physics beyond the standard cosmological model, namely cosmic birefringence.
Observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background rely on cryogenic instrumentation with cold detectors, readout, and optics providing the low noise performance and instrumental stability required to make more sensitive measurements. It is therefore critical to optimize all aspects of the cryogenic design to achieve the necessary performance, with low temperature components and acceptable system cooling requirements. In particular, we will focus on our use of thermal filters and cold optics, which reduce the thermal load passed along to the cryogenic stages. To test their performance, we have made a series of in situ measurements while integrating the third receiver for the BICEP Array telescope. In addition to characterizing the behavior of this receiver, these measurements continue to refine the models that are being used to inform design choices being made for future instruments.
This conference presentation was prepared for the Millimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy XI conference at SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation, 2022.
The Bicep/Keck Array experiment is a series of small-aperture refracting telescopes observing degree-scale Cosmic Microwave Background polarization from the South Pole in search of a primordial B-mode signature. As a pair differencing experiment, an important systematic that must be controlled is the differential beam response between the co-located, orthogonally polarized detectors. We use high-fidelity, in-situ measurements of the beam response to estimate the temperature-to-polarization (T → P) leakage in our latest data including observations from 2016 through 2018. This includes three years of Bicep3 observing at 95 GHz, and multifrequency data from Keck Array. Here we present band-averaged far-field beam maps, differential beam mismatch, and residual beam power (after filtering out the leading difference modes via deprojection) for these receivers. We show preliminary results of "beam map simulations," which use these beam maps to observe a simulated temperature (no Q/U) sky to estimate T → P leakage in our real data.
The BICEP3 CMB Polarimeter is a small-aperture refracting telescope located at the South Pole and is specifically designed to search for the possible signature of inflationary gravitational waves in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). The experiment measures polarization on the sky by differencing the signal of co-located, orthogonally polarized antennas coupled to Transition Edge Sensor (TES) detectors. We present precise measurements of the absolute polarization response angles and polarization efficiencies for nearly all of BICEP3's ~800 functioning polarization-sensitive detector pairs from calibration data taken in January 2018. Using a Rotating Polarized Source (RPS), we mapped polarization response for each detector over a full 360 degrees of source rotation and at multiple telescope boresight rotations from which per-pair polarization properties were estimated. In future work, these results will be used to constrain signals predicted by exotic physical models such as Cosmic Birefringence.
BICEP3 is a 520 mm aperture on-axis refracting telescope at the South Pole, which observes the polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at 95 GHz to search for the B-mode signal from inflationary gravitational waves. In addition to this main target, we have developed a low-elevation observation strategy to extend coverage of the Southern sky at the South Pole, where BICEP3 can quickly achieve degree-scale E-mode measurements over a large area. An interesting E-mode measurement is probing a potential polarization anomaly around the CMB Cold Spot. During the austral summer seasons of 2018-19 and 2019-20, BICEP3 observed the sky with a flat mirror to redirect the beams to various low elevation ranges. The preliminary data analysis shows degree-scale E-modes measured with high signal-to-noise ratio.
We present our design for antenna-coupled thermal kinetic inductance detectors (TKIDs) designed for Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) observations in the 150 GHz band. The next generation of telescopes studying the CMB will require large arrays of detectors on cryogenic focal planes to achieve high sensitivity at the cost of increased integration and readout complexity. TKIDs have demonstrated photon-limited noise performance comparable to traditional bolometers with a radiofrequency (RF) multiplexing architecture that enables the large detector counts needed. We characterize TKIDs fabricated for observing the CMB in a frequency band centered at 150 GHz and discuss the optical performance. These devices are a critical step towards fielding a Keck Array camera with 512 devices on the focal plane at the South Pole.
A detection of curl-type (B-mode) polarization of the primary CMB would be direct evidence for the inflationary paradigm of the origin of the Universe. The Bicep/Keck Array (BK) program targets the degree angular scales, where the power from primordial B-mode polarization is expected to peak, with ever-increasing sensitivity and has published the most stringent constraints on inflation to date. Bicep Array (BA) is the Stage-3 instrument of the BK program and will comprise four Bicep3-class receivers observing at 30/40, 95, 150 and 220/270 GHz with a combined 32,000+ detectors; such wide frequency coverage is necessary for control of the Galactic foregrounds, which also produce degree-scale B-mode signal. The 30/40 GHz receiver is designed to constrain the synchrotron foreground and has begun observing at the South Pole in early 2020. By the end of a 3-year observing campaign, the full Bicep Array instrument is projected to reach σr between 0.002 and 0.004, depending on foreground complexity and degree of removal of B-modes due to gravitational lensing (delensing). This paper presents an overview of the design, measured on-sky performance and calibration of the first BA receiver. We also give a preview of the added complexity in the time-domain multiplexed readout of the 7,776-detector 150 GHz receiver.
BICEP Array is a degree-scale Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) experiment that will search for primordial B-mode polarization while constraining Galactic foregrounds. BICEP Array will be comprised of four receivers to cover a broad frequency range with channels at 30/40, 95, 150 and 220/270 GHz. The first low-frequency receiver will map synchrotron emission at 30 and 40 GHz and will deploy to the South Pole at the end of 2019. In this paper, we give an overview of the BICEP Array science and instrument, with a focus on the detector module. We designed corrugations in the metal frame of the module to suppress unwanted interactions with the antenna-coupled detectors that would otherwise deform the beams of edge pixels. This design reduces the residual beam systematics and temperature-to-polarization leakage due to beam steering and shape mismatch between polarized beam pairs. We report on the simulated performance of single- and wide-band corrugations designed to minimize these effects. Our optimized design alleviates beam differential ellipticity caused by the metal frame to about 7% over 57% bandwidth (25 to 45 GHz), which is close to the level due the bare antenna itself without a metal frame. Initial laboratory measurements are also presented.
BICEP3 is a 520mm aperture on-axis refracting telescope observing the polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at 95GHz in search of the B-mode signal originating from in ationary gravitational waves. BICEP3's focal plane is populated with modularized tiles of antenna-coupled transition edge sensor (TES) bolometers. BICEP3 was deployed to the South Pole during 2014-15 austral summer and has been operational since. During the 2016-17 austral summer, we implemented changes to optical elements that lead to better noise performance. We discuss this upgrade and show the performance of BICEP3 at its full mapping speed from the 2017 and 2018 observing seasons. BICEP3 achieves an order-of-magnitude improvement in mapping speed compared to a Keck 95GHz receiver. We demonstrate 6.6μK√s noise performance of the BICEP3 receiver.
We are developing Thermal Kinetic Inductance Detector (TKID) bolometers for submillimter astronomy and CMB polarimetry with the BICEP Array's 250GHz dust monitor camera as an early application. We couple power to our bolometers by resistive terminations to antenna-fed microstrip circuits and sense changes in temperature with a membrane isolated microwave kinetic inductance thermometer (MKIT). The MKIT resonates with an off-island capacitor and capacitively couples to a microstrip transmission line to provide radio-frequency multiplexing analogous to that of traditional non-phonon-mediated KIDs. By splitting the absorption, sensing, and relaxation of quasiparticles back to the thermal bath into different sub-devices, we attain more design degrees of freedom than KIDs and can tailor the detector’s performance. We will report on the design and performance of our optically coupled TKIDs and comment on the sensitivity, emphasizing TLS and vibrational noise mechanisms. We will also show preliminary results from studies of the detectors optical properties as defined by the antenna-array the coupled power to the detector. Lastly, we will describe designs for a 900 detector pathfinder camera that will precede the full 20,000 BICEP Array camera.
Bicep Array is the newest multi-frequency instrument in the Bicep/Keck Array program. It is comprised of four 550mm aperture refractive telescopes observing the polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at 30/40, 95, 150 and 220/270 GHz with over 30,000 detectors. We present an overview of the receiver, detailing the optics, thermal, mechanical, and magnetic shielding design. Bicep Array follows Bicep3's modular focal plane concept, and upgrades to 6" wafer to reduce fabrication with higher detector count per module. The first receiver at 30/40GHz is expected to start observing at the South Pole during the 2019-20 season. By the end of the planned Bicep Array program, we project 0.002 ⪅ σ(r) ⪅ 0.006, assuming current modeling of polarized Galactic foreground and depending on the level of delensing that can be achieved with higher resolution maps from the South Pole Telescope.
Bicep Array is a cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization experiment that will begin observing at the South Pole in early 2019. This experiment replaces the five Bicep2 style receivers that compose the Keck Array with four larger Bicep3 style receivers observing at six frequencies from 30 to 270GHz. The 95GHz and 150GHz receivers will continue to push the already deep Bicep/Keck CMB maps while the 30/40GHz and 220/270GHz receivers will constrain the synchrotron and galactic dust foregrounds respectively. Here we report on the design and performance of the Bicep Array instruments focusing on the mount and cryostat systems.
Targeting faint polarization patterns arising from Primordial Gravitational Waves in the Cosmic Microwave Background requires excellent observational sensitivity. Optical elements in small aperture experiments such as Bicep3 and Keck Array are designed to optimize throughput and minimize losses from transmission, reflection and scattering at millimeter wavelengths. As aperture size increases, cryostat vacuum windows must withstand larger forces from atmospheric pressure and the solution has often led to a thicker window at the expense of larger transmission loss. We have identified a new candidate material for the fabrication of vacuum windows: with a tensile strength two orders of magnitude larger than previously used materials, woven high-modulus polyethylene could allow for dramatically thinner windows, and therefore significantly reduced losses and higher sensitivity. In these proceedings we investigate the suitability of high-modulus polyethylene windows for ground-based CMB experiments, such as current and future receivers in the Bicep/Keck Array program. This includes characterizing their optical transmission as well as their mechanical behavior under atmospheric pressure. We find that such ultra-thin materials are promising candidates to improve the performance of large-aperture instruments at millimeter wavelengths, and outline a plan for further tests ahead of a possible upcoming field deployment of such a science-grade window.
H. Hui, P. Ade, Z. Ahmed, K. Alexander, M. Amiri, D. Barkats, S. Benton, C. Bischoff, J. Bock, H. Boenish, R. Bowens-Rubin, I. Buder, E. Bullock, V. Buza, J. Connors, J. Filippini, S. Fliescher, J. Grayson, M. Halpern, S. Harrison, G. Hilton, V. Hristov, K. Irwin, J. Kang, K. Karkare, E. Karpel, S. Kefeli, S. Kernasovskiy, J. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, E. Leitch, M. Lueker, K. Megerian, V. Monticue, T. Namikawa, C. Netterfield, H. Nguyen, R. O'Brient, R. Ogburn, C. Pryke, C. Reintsema, S. Richter, R. Schwarz, C. Sorensen, C. Sheehy, Z. Staniszewski, B. Steinbach, G. Teply, K. Thompson, J. Tolan, C. Tucker, A. Turner, A. Vieregg, A. Wandui, A. Weber, D. Wiebe, J. Willmert, W. L. Wu, K. W. Yoon
BICEP3, the latest telescope in the BICEP/Keck program, started science observations in March 2016. It is a 550mm aperture refractive telescope observing the polarization of the cosmic microwave background at 95 GHz. We show the focal plane design and detector performance, including spectral response, optical efficiency and preliminary sensitivity of the upgraded BICEP3. We demonstrate 9.72 μKCMB√s noise performance of the BICEP3 receiver.
K. Karkare, P. A. Ade, Z. Ahmed, K. Alexander, M. Amiri, D. Barkats, S. Benton, C. Bischoff, J. Bock, H. Boenish, R. Bowens-Rubin, I. Buder, E. Bullock, V. Buza, J. Connors, J. Filippini, S. Fliescher, J. Grayson, M. Halpern, S. Harrison, G. Hilton, V. Hristov, H. Hui, K. Irwin, J. Kang, E. Karpel, S. Kefeli, S. Kernasovskiy, J. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, E. Leitch, M. Lueker, K. Megerian, V. Monticue, T. Namikawa, C. Netterfield, H. T. Nguyen, R. O'Brient, R. Ogburn, C. Pryke, C. Reintsema, S. Richter, M. St. Germaine, R. Schwarz, C. Sheehy, Z. Staniszewski, B. Steinbach, G. Teply, K. Thompson, J. Tolan, C. Tucker, A. Turner, A. Vieregg, A. Wandui, A. Weber, J. Willmert, C. L. Wong, W. L. Wu, K. W. Yoon
BICEP3 is a small-aperture refracting cosmic microwave background (CMB) telescope designed to make sensitive polarization maps in pursuit of a potential B-mode signal from inflationary gravitational waves. It is the latest in the Bicep/Keck Array series of CMB experiments located at the South Pole, which has provided the most stringent constraints on inflation to date. For the 2016 observing season, BICEP3 was outfitted with a full suite of 2400 optically coupled detectors operating at 95 GHz. In these proceedings we report on the far field beam performance using calibration data taken during the 2015-2016 summer deployment season in situ with a thermal chopped source. We generate high-fidelity per-detector beam maps, show the array-averaged beam profile, and characterize the differential beam response between co-located, orthogonally polarized detectors which contributes to the leading instrumental systematic in pair differencing experiments. We find that the levels of differential pointing, beamwidth, and ellipticity are similar to or lower than those measured for Bicep2 and Keck Array. The magnitude and distribution of Bicep3’s differential beam mismatch – and the level to which temperature-to-polarization leakage may be marginalized over or subtracted in analysis - will inform the design of next-generation CMB experiments with many thousands of detectors.
J. Grayson, P. A. Ade, Z. Ahmed, K. Alexander, M. Amiri, D. Barkats, S. Benton, C. Bischoff, J. Bock, H. Boenish, R. Bowens-Rubin, I. Buder, E. Bullock, V. Buza, J. Connors, J. Filippini, S. Fliescher, M. Halpern, S. Harrison, G. Hilton, V. Hristov, H. Hui, K. Irwin, J. Kang, K. Karkare, E. Karpel, S. Kefeli, S. Kernasovskiy, J. Kovac, C. L. Kuo, E. Leitch, M. Lueker, K. Megerian, V. Monticue, T. Namikawa, C. Netterfield, H. Nguyen, R. O'Brient, R. Ogburn, C. Pryke, C. Reintsema, S. Richter, R. Schwarz, C. Sorenson, C. Sheehy, Z. Staniszewski, B. Steinbach, G. Teply, K. Thompson, J. Tolan, C. Tucker, A. Turner, A. Vieregg, A. Wandui, A. Weber, D. Wiebe, J. Willmert, W. L. Wu, K. W. Yoon
Bicep3 is a 520mm aperture, compact two-lens refractor designed to observe the polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at 95 GHz. Its focal plane consists of modularized tiles of antenna-coupled transition edge sensors (TESs), similar to those used in Bicep2 and the Keck Array. The increased per-receiver optical throughput compared to Bicep2/Keck Array, due to both its faster f=1:7 optics and the larger aperture, more than doubles the combined mapping speed of the Bicep/Keck program. The Bicep3 receiver was recently upgraded to a full complement of 20 tiles of detectors (2560 TESs) and is now beginning its second year of observation (and first science season) at the South Pole. We report on its current performance and observing plans. Given its high per-receiver throughput while maintaining the advantages of a compact design, Bicep3- class receivers are ideally suited as building blocks for a 3rd-generation CMB experiment, consisting of multiple receivers spanning 35 GHz to 270 GHz with total detector count in the tens of thousands. We present plans for such an array, the new "BICEP Array" that will replace the Keck Array at the South Pole, including design optimization, frequency coverage, and deployment/observing strategies.
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