Additive manufacturing (AM) is an emerging field experiencing rapid growth. This paper presents a feasibility study of using fused-deposition modeling (FDM) techniques with smart materials to fabricate objects with sensing and actuating capabilities. The fabrication of objects with sensing typically requires the integration and assembly of multiple components. Incorporating sensing elements into a single FDM process has the potential to significantly simplify manufacturing. The integration of multiple materials, especially smart materials and those with multi-functional properties, into the FDM process is challenging and still requires further development.
Previous works by the authors have demonstrated a good printability of thermoplastic polyurethane/multiwall carbon nanotubes (TPU/MWCNT) while maintaining conductivity and piezoresistive response. This research explores the effects of layer height, nozzle temperature, and bed temperature on the electrical conductivity and piezoresistive response of printed TPU/MWCNT nanocomposites. An impedance analyzer was used to determine the conductivity of printed samples under different printing conditions from 5Hz-13MHz. The samples were then tested under compression loads to measure the piezoresistive response.
Results show the conductivity and piezoresistive response are only slightly affected by the print parameters and they can be largely considered independent of the print conditions within the examined ranges of print parameters. This behavior simplifies the printing process design for TPU/MWCNT complex structures. This work demonstrates the possibility of manufacturing embedded and multidirectional flexible strain sensors using an inexpensive and versatile method, with potential applications in soft robotics, flexible electronics, and health monitoring.
As the desire for wearable electronics increases and the soft robotics industry advances, the need for novel sensing materials has also increased. Recently, there have been many attempts at producing novel materials, which exhibit piezoresistive behavior. However, one of the major shortcomings in strain sensing technologies is in the fabrication of such sensors. While there is significant research and literature covering the various methods for developing piezoresistive materials, fabricating complex sensor platforms is still a manufacturing challenge.
Here, we report a facile method to fabricate multidirectional embedded strain sensors using additive manufacturing technology. Pure thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and TPU/multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) nanocomposites were 3D printed in tandem using a low-cost multi-material FDM printer to fabricate uniaxial and biaxial strain sensors with conductive paths embedded within the insulative TPU platform. The sensors were then subjected to a series of cyclic strain loads. The results revealed excellent piezoresistive responses of the sensors with cyclic repeatability in both the axial and transverse directions and in response to strains as high as 50%. Further, while strain-softening did occur in the embedded printed strain sensors, it was predictable and similar to the results found in the literature for bulk polymer nanocomposites. This works demonstrates the possibility of manufacturing embedded and multidirectional flexible strain sensors using an inexpensive and versatile method, with potential applications in soft robotics and flexible electronics and health monitoring.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is an emerging field with rapid growth. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), as an AM
method, is becoming increasingly popular. With the ability to create parts from a wide range of thermoplastics, it is
necessary to understand the effects of FDM process on the printed part’s mechanical properties for a given material.
This paper investigates the mechanical properties of 3D printed TPU parts created by a typical low cost desk-top FDM
machine.
TPU was first extruded into filament suitable for FDM and printed into samples for tensile tests according to the ASTM
3039 standard. The effects of raster orientation, nozzle temperature, and air gap on the mechanical properties were
investigated. The compression-molded samples were used as the baseline. While the printed samples had an overall
lower ultimate tensile strength (UTS) compared to the molded samples, the printed samples with a negative air gap
showed nearly isotropic material properties, irrespective of raster orientation and nozzle temperature. For samples with a
positive air gap, raster orientation had a large influence on the overall UTS. Nozzle temperature did not have much effect
on the UTS. When compared to rigid thermoplastics TPU has a much lower glass transition temperature (Tg) at -40° C.
This allows for much better interlayer bonding between print lines as TPU is above Tg for the entire printing process.
This paper presents power transmission performance of the ultrasound-based piezoelectric recharging system for
implantable medical devices. The efficiency of the piezoelectric ultrasonic transcutaneous energy transfer system
depends on frequency matching of the transmitter and receiver, electrical, mechanical and acoustical impedance
characteristics, distance between the transducers, and misalignment. However, it was realized that the angular
misalignment between transmitter and receiver was one of key factors to have effect on the power transmission
efficiency. As such, misalignment effect of the piezoelectric ultrasound transmitter and receiver on the power
transmission efficiency was investigated by theoretical analysis using finite-difference time-domain method. The
pressure field variation in the near field was also estimated to examine the influence of the power transfer performance
of the ultrasound-based charging system.
Analytical results indicate that the transferred power is greatly reduced by voltage cancellation on the receiver from
phase shift due to the misalignment. Furthermore, significant acoustic pressure variation in the near field makes the
effect of misalignment on power transmission dependent on the receiver location.
Harvesting wasted energy and converting it into electrical energy to use as needed is an emerging technology area. In
this work, a new design of a cymbal energy harvester is developed and tested to validate analytical energy generating
performance. Cymbal transducers have been demonstrated to be beneficial as energy harvesters for vibrating systems
under modest load and frequency. In this paper a new design is adopted using a unimorph circular piezoelectric disc
between the metal end caps to deal with higher loads. Simple analysis for the new cymbal design to predict voltage
output was first conducted. The new cymbal design, 25.4 mm diameter and 8.2 mm thickness, was then fabricated and
tested on the load frame with up to 324 lb load and 1 Hz frequency to measure output voltages. This device could be
used in numerous applications for potentially self sustaining sensors or other electronic devices. By changing the
structure between the metal end caps of cymbal harvesters the new design could be extended in higher load applications.
The interest in "morphing" structures that can undergo drastic shape changes has steadily grown in recent years. This
paper considers a particular type of morphing structure that can exhibit significant modulus change, enabling the
deformation to occur with low applied forces (and low stress in the material). Specifically, shape memory polymer is
used as the enabling material, and it is transitioned from hard to soft to allow deformation, then returned to its hard state
after deformation to carry structural loads. Given the large deformations of these types of structures, conventional linear
mechanics models are not adequate to predict the behavior or to be used as design tools. This paper explores the use of
quasi-static three-dimensional nonlinear finite element modeling to study the force deformation behavior of a morphing
link. The modeling approach for the morphing process is shown to produce results that are representative of
experimental observations. In addition, capabilities are explored to use the numerical methods to study the potential of
partial transitioning of the link, in which only a portion of the shape memory polymer material is transitioned. By
transitioning only a portion of the link, the power and transition time can be reduced without compromising the applied
forces or final shape, and the functionality of the link can be increased as well. The results point to the nonlinear
modeling as a promising tool for optimizing the design and operation of morphing structures.
This paper presents a finite element analysis of an interdigitated ( d33 ) piezoelectric unimorph cantilever beam for
harvesting vibration energy. The key feature that is analyzed is the poling behavior of the piezoelectric material.
While simplified models of interdigitated piezoelectric devices assume some uniform and well-defined poling
pattern, the finite element modeling shows that not to be the case. In this paper, a "percent poling factor" is
developed with which to capture the real losses associated with non-uniform poling. A parametric study is carried
out in which electrode patterns, piezoelectric layer dimensions and electrode dimensions are varied to see their effect
on this percent poling factor. Optimal parameters are pointed out. Finally, experimental energy harvesting results
for a micro-scale interdigitated beam are presented.
This paper presents experimental results that demonstrate energy generating performance of circular piezoelectric
diaphragm harvesters for use in implantable medical devices. The piezoelectric energy generators are designed to
transfer internal biomechanical forces into electrical energy that can be stored and used to power other in vivo devices.
Such energy harvesters can eliminate complicated procedures for replacement of batteries in active implants by possibly
increasing the longevity or capacity of batteries. Experimental results indicated that the PZT circular diaphragm
harvesters generated enough power to meet requirements for specific implantable medical devices. It is also found that
edge condition, thickness of bonding layer, and a degree of symmetry in fabrication for the unimorph circular
diaphragms affect the energy generating performance significantly.
This paper presents current work on a project to demonstrate the feasibility of harvesting energy for medical devices
from internal biomechanical forces using piezoelectric transducer technology based on PMN-PT. The energy harvesting
device in this study is a partially covered, simply-supported PMN-PT unimorph circular plate to capture biomechanical
energy and to provide power to implanted medical devices. Power harvesting performance for the piezoelectric energy
harvesting diaphragm structure is examined analytically. The analysis includes comprehensive modeling and parametric
study to provide a design primer for a specific application. An expression for the total power output from the devices for
applied pressure is shown, and then used to determine optimal design parameters. It is shown that the device's
deflections and stresses under load are the limiting factors in the design. While the primary material choice for energy
harvesting today is PZT, an advanced material, PMN-PT, which exhibits improved potential over current materials, is
used.
This paper presents a study in which clamped unimorph rectangular piezoelectric diaphragms are analyzed to determine the importance of electrode patterning. There has been a great deal of interest in getting increased deflection out of smaller piezoelectric devices with lower input power. In previous work, it has been shown that a clamped circular diaphragm can generate much increased deflection in response to an electric loading when the electrode has a "regrouped" pattern. Regrouping refers to the process of segmenting the electrodes into regions that are electrically disconnected so that the corresponding polarity can be set in opposite directions. The rectangular diaphragm actuator is studied in this paper to determine the effects of electrode patterns and the shape of the piezoelectric layer on the actuator's static displacement. From the analytical results, it is shown that regrouping the electrode pattern on a rectangular actuator can increase deflection, and subsequently volumetric displacement, by many times.
This paper presents a study in which clamped unimorph piezoelectric diaphragms are tested to determine the importance of the pattern of the electrodes that supply the driving charge to the actuator. In previous work, it has been shown that such a diaphragm, when used as an energy harvesting device, can generate a much increased charge in response to an applied pressure when the electrode has a “regrouped” pattern. Regrouping refers to the process of segmenting the electrodes into regions that are electrically disconnected and then reconnecting those regions such that some have reversed polarity. The circular diaphragm actuator studied in this paper works somewhat the opposite of an energy harvester. That is, applied charge is used to generate diaphragm deflection as opposed to applied pressure generating charge. Four unimorph diaphragm actuators, with different electrode patterns, were tested in this work. According to analytical and experimental results, it is shown that a factor of seven increase in diaphragm deflection can be obtained with regrouping.
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