Integrated-optic 1×2 switch utilizing electro-optically controllable Y-fed directional coupler has been fabricated in LiNbO3 substrates with proton exchange technology. Such an integrated-optic switch has the newly designed Y-branching power divider allowing for high switching contrast at the both optical output ports and low driving voltage. To obtain an acceptable value of the interaction-length-to-coupling-length ratio, the novel trimming procedure is proposed. A rather high switching contrast ≥ 23 dB (power extinction ratio) at any output port and 2.5 dB insertion losses were obtained for a device with the 9 mm electrodes length.
Temperature stability of magneto-optic sensor at a marked transient temperature gradient has been investigated. Our experimental study leads to the conclusion that the polarized gyro architecture with two quarter-wave retarders on the opposite sides of the fiber loop of Sagnac interferometer must be used to obtain a fiber-optic current sensor with the lowdrift behavior.
Multi-function integrated optics chips consisting of a linear polarizer, phase electro-optic modulators and Y-branching
power divider were fabricated in x-cut LiNbO3 wafers with the aid of annealed proton exchange technique. Insertion
losses, power transfer coefficient, splitting ratio and its spectral dependence were measured for Y-branching power
dividers of different branching topologies based on channel waveguides. The parasitic spectral selectivity and
photorefractive damage were suppressed by optimization of branching topology, introducing an extra taper with variable
parameters.
KEYWORDS: Fiber optic gyroscopes, Digital signal processing, Phase modulation, Gyroscopes, Fiber optics, Modulation, Field programmable gate arrays, Signal processing, Waveguides, Analog electronics
The design and industrial production of closed loop fiber optical gyroscopes with linear digital output for commercial,
military and space applications is considered. These gyros characterized by high accuracy can be applied in high-grade
(space, aviation, marine, land) inertial navigation systems.
An optical voltage sensor is proposed that exploits the electric field dependence of transmission of a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer fabricated on basis of the channel waveguides in electro-optic LiNbO3. The device works in a
transmission scheme, utilizing the long fibre transmission lines for input and output optical signals. The sensor has been
used to measure AC electric fields in a range from 0.005 to 56 kV/cm, resulting in a linear sensitivity that may be further
improved by tailoring of the optical and geometrical parameters of the fibre-pigtailed Mach-Zehnder interferometer.
The operation of Fiber Optic Gyro is based on the Sagnac Effect which states that light beams propagating
along opposite directions in a rotating frame experience an optical path length difference. These two counter-propagating
waves propagate within a closed fiber coil, and when this coil rotates the resultant phase difference is proportional to the
rotation rate Ω. Fiber optic gyroscopes are desirable devices for many navigation and guidance applications because,
being solid state devices, they have several major advantages including light weight, long working lifetimes, no moving
parts and operate using low voltage power. In this paper the Optolink's single-axis and three-axis fiber optic gyroscopes
are described. The Optolink's FOGs consist of the light-emitting diode, one or three photodetectors, circulators and
polarization maintaining fiber couplers to divide the light into two or three parts, one or three sets of ring interferometers
to sense one or three orthogonal angular rates, and installed PCB signal processing circuits. The ring interferometer
consists of a multifunction integrated optic chip and polarization maintaining fiber coil, both these components are
designed and fabricated by Optolink. The results illustrate the versatility of the technology, showing its potential to meet
both the low-cost, compact sized needs of tactical guidance, as well as the very high performance needs of inertial
navigation and precision applications. The optic and electronic blocks of closed-loop gyroscopes with integrated optic
components are also considered in this paper.
The fiber optical dew point hygrometer based on change of reflection coefficient for fiber cut has been developed and
examined. We proposed and verified the model of condensation detector functioning principle. Experimental frost point
measurements on air with different frost points have been performed.
Electro-optic Mach-Zehnder interferometric (MZI) modulators have been fabricated by proton exchange in LiTaO3. Electro-optic efficiency of these modulators has been found to be depending on phase composition of HxLi1-xTaO3 waveguide in full accordance with the data of Raman scattering spectroscopy on microscopic contributions in electro-optic effect for the different HxLi1-xTaO3 phases. These spectroscopy data were used to found an appropriate phase composition and, thus, optimize MZI modulators. The experimental samples of MZI modulator fabricated at the optimal technological conditions exhibit the improved electro-optical efficiency with far superior photorefractive resistance compared to the LiNbO3 waveguides and modulators.
We present a broadband DBR recorded with violet light (441.6 nm) by use of a holographic technique into Tiindiffused channel LiNbO3 waveguides, which were doped by proton-assisted copper exchange, giving unique possibility to reach an extremely high modulation of refractive index (≥5x10-4) within photorefractive grating. In a first approach we obtain a reflectivity of 17 % and bandwidth (FWHM) of 1.2 nm for IR light with center wavelength 1534.3 nm. Finally, we present the experimental data on specific spectral response of an asymmetric Fabry-Perot interferometer formed by broadband DBR and air-waveguide interface.
Multifunctional integrated optical chip (MIOC) for fiber optical gyroscope with linear digital output is developed. The technology is based on recently proposed High-Temperature Proton Exchange method. MIOC is used for industrial closed-loop fiber optic gyro.
Reflection second-harmonic generation (SHG) from the polished waveguide end face is used to investigate the second-order nonlinear optical properties of different types of PE LiNbO3 and LiTaO3 waveguides in different HxLi1-xNbO3 and HxLi1-xTaO3 phases: as-exchanged and annealed proton-exchanged (APE) waveguides, high-temperature proton-exchanged (HTPE) waveguides, as well as reverse proton exchanged (RPE) waveguides. A detailed correlation is done between the nonlinear properties, the processing conditions, crystal structure parameters, the refractive index changes and the optical losses of the waveguides. The intensity of reflected SH signal, strongly reduced after the initial proton exchange in both LiNbO3 and LiTaO3, is found to be restored and even increased after annealing. However, this apparent increase of the nonlinearity is accompanied by high scattering and a strong degradation of the quality of the SHG reflected beam in the region of initial step-like PE waveguides. The recently proposed HTPE technique has been shown to produce high-quality alpha-phase PE LiNbO3 or PE LiTaO3 waveguides with essentially undegraded nonlinear optical properties. It has been also shown that the nonlinear properties of annealed proton exchanged LiNbO3 and LiTaO3 waveguides can be effectively recovered by the reverse proton exchange technique.
In this paper, we report characterization of insertion losses, mode profiles and intensity distributions in channel LiNbO3 optical waveguide fabricated by High-Temperature Proton Exchange (HTPE). Optimal fabrication parameters were chosen in accordance with results obtained for test samples of a planar waveguide. A target wavelength of our optimization procedure was 810 - 840 nm, as fabrication of phase modulator used in sensor is developed. The guided mode intensity has been mapped by scanning near-field optical microscopy with a sub-wavelength resolution (<100 nm), simultaneously with observation of the topography of the scanned area (100 μm x 100 μm). These measurements offer important information about loss mechanisms in our waveguides.
The copper exchange effects in waveguides containing different HxLi1-xNbO3 phases are investigated. We have used x-ray diffraction, m-line spectroscopy in the visible, near UV and IR regions and holographic characterization methods. The crucial dependence of holographic sensitivity on phase composition has been found to be the specific feature of Cu:H:LiNbO3 waveguides. It is established, that the main peculiarities of optical and photorefractive properties are caused by simultaneous formation of Cu+ defects and (OH--Cu+) pair defects.
The erbium-lithium ion exchange is presented as a method for the erbium local doping of lithium niobate crystals. Ion exchange process is performed immersing the LiNbO3 substrates in a liquid melt, containing erbium ions; due to their high mobility, the lithium ions migrate from the crystal to the melt, and are replaced by erbium ions. A systematic analysis of the doping process is performed, and the influence of the process parameters is investigated: exchange time and temperature, crystal cut direction, composition and chemical reactivity of the Er ions liquid source. By structural (X-Ray Diffraction and Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry), compositional (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) and spectroscopic techniques (optical spectroscopy and micro-luminescence), the formation of lithium deficient phases and the incorporation of the Er ions into the LiNbO3 matrix is studied.
We show that SiO2 cladding effects on optical properties of annealed proton-exchanged (APE) LiNbO3 waveguides as well as on kinetic of annealing process. Annealing with previously deposited SiO2 film reduces the optical losses in APE LiNbO3 waveguides. The structural phase diagram of HxLi1-xNbO3 is also modified if annealing is performed with previously deposited SiO2 layer. The physical mechanisms, including evaporation of H2O and/or Li2O during annealing without deposited film and, as a result, formation of defects and lithium deficit phase is discussed.
An efficient method, the high temperature proton exchange (HTPE), to fabricate high-quality LiNbO3 optical waveguides is studied. The new proton exchange source, the stearic acid diluted by lithium stearate, is proposed for HTPE process. The known Soft Proton Exchange (SPE) process can be realized by HTPE. THere are no phase transitions when the (alpha) -phase waveguides are fabricated by SPE. This phase presents the same crystalline structure as that of LiNbO3 and, as expected, maintains the excellent nonlinear and electro-optical properties of the bulk material. The kinetics of HTPE is studied.
The single crystalline solid solutions HxLi1-xNbO3 prepared by proton exchange exhibit very complex structural chemistry which is different from known for powders. The HxLi1-xNbO3 layers present up to seven different crystallographic phases. the correlation between the crystalline structure, refractive indices, proton concentration and ferroelectric properties has been experimentally determined, that allows to predict the characteristics of great variety of waveguides.
The Optical Communications Group of the German Aerospace Research Establishment (DLR) has investigated the feasibility of a fiberless receiver telescope for high sensitive coherent optical space communication, resulting in an elegant Pointing, Acquisition and Tracking (PAT) concept. To demonstrate the feasibility of this new concept, an optical receiver terminal that coherently obtains both the spatial error signal for tracking and the data signal with only one set of detectors has been built. The result is a very simple and compact setup with few optical surfaces. It does not require fibers for superpositionning and is capable to compensate for microaccelerations up to about one kilohertz.
Keywords: free-space optical communication, coherent optical receiver terminal, satellite vibration compensation, fiberfree heterodyning, Pointing, Acquisition and Tracking
In this paper, we show how the recently plotted phase diagrams of the HLi1NbO3 and HLi1TaO3 waveguiding layers on top of a crystal of a given orientation allows to understand, and thus to control, the reverse proton exchange (RPE) process in lithium niobate and lithium tantalate crystals to make buried waveguides for extraordinary polarization modes and surface waveguides, supporting ordinary polarization modes. The relationships between ordinary and extraordinary refractive index changes for different crystalline phases in HLi1.NbO3 and HLi1TaO3 systems have been obtained.
Keywords: lithium niobate, lithium tantalate, reverse proton exchange, optical waveguides
We describe the fabrication and properties of optical waveguides formed in Z-cut proton exchanged LiTaO3 and X- and Z-cuts annealed proton exchanged LiNbO3 structures by reverse proton exchange Li+ yields H+ in the LiNO3 and LiNO3-KNO3-NaNO3 melts at 280 - 340 degree(s)C. Surface waveguides, supporting ordinary polarization modes, as well as the buried waveguides for extraordinary polarization modes have been produced. The diffusion constant Do and the activation energy Q for the reverse proton exchange process in LiTaO3 were calculated to be 2.95 (DOT) 107 micrometers 2/h and 97.66 kJ/mol, respectively. A surface decrease of the ordinary refractive index (Delta) noequals -0.034 in H:LiTaO3 waveguides with (Delta) neequals 0.026 was estimated from direct measurements. The reverse proton exchange method was used to form buried waveguides in the well annealed proton exchanged lithium niobate waveguides. The different crystal phases were identified in APE LiNbO3. The relationships between extraordinary and ordinary index changes in APE LiNbO3 waveguides annealed at different temperatures (330 degree(s)C and 400 degree(s)C) were obtained.
The optical properties and both unstrained lattice constants in the high-index zinc-substituted lithium tantalate waveguides are determined depending on exchange and annealing conditions. The LiTaO3-ZnTa2O6 system clearly exhibits a complex structural chemistry. The two distinct phases have been observed. The dependences of the extraordinary and ordinary indices change on the lattice parameters of the unstrained single crystalline Li1-xZnx/2TaO3 solid solutions in both observed phases were obtained.
It has been shown that the lattice-misfit-induced strains in H:LiNbO3 waveguiding layers strongly modify the phase diagram HNbO3-LiNbO3 obtained for powders. Depending on exchange and annealing conditions and crystal cuts, at least the six phases (alpha) , (beta) -, (gamma) -, (delta) -, (zetz) - and (eta) - HxLi1-xNbO3 can exist in single crystal proton-exchanged layers. The high and low temperature modifications were obtained for (alpha) and (beta) - phases. The relationships between crystal lattice parameters of unstrained HxLi1-xNbO3 solid solutions and extraordinary refractive index change have been experimentally determined for the high and low temperature modifications of (alpha) and (beta) phases in proton-exchanged lithium niobate waveguides.
The relationship between deformations of crystal lattice and extraordinary refractive index change has been experimentally determined
for proton-exchanged lithium niobate waveguides. It has been shown that
the strains induces by the substrate strongly modifies the phase diagram obtained for powders. Depending on exchange and annealing conditions and crystal cuts, at least the six phases x -, 13-, -, 5-, ( and
'Ti - HxL:L1-NbO3 can exist in single crystal layers. The regularities of
proton exchange in lithium niobate crystals under different exchange
and annealing conditions are studied and various specific features are
explained.
Optical waveguides in lithium tantalate crystals prepared by nonisovalent ion exchange have been characterized. We found that the waveguides can be formed by ion exchange reactions Me2+ yields 2Li+ (Me: Ni, Mn, Fe, Co) in the salt melts at the temperatures below the Curie point of lithium tantalate. The fabrication and properties of optical waveguides formed in LiTaO3 by simultaneous processing of nonisovalent and proton exchange have been also described. A surface increase of the refractive index up to 0.14 was observed for the extraordinary polarization and up to 0.11 for the ordinary polarization. The birefringence and index change of such waveguides can be controlled by varying the melt concentrations. The dynamics of the process is discussed. Rare-earth doping of LiTaO3 by ion exchange reactions Er3+ yields 3Li+ and Nd3+ yields 3Li+ have been obtain at the temperature below the Curie point.
A method to determine the lattice parameters of proton-exchanged (PE) lithium tantalate solid solutions by examining the PE processes on rotated (Okl)LiTa03 cuts is proposed. It has been shown that, depending on exchange and annealing conditions and crystal cuts, the five phases a-, ~-, 7-, o- and ~-HxLi1-xTaQ3 can exist in single crystal H:LiTa03 layers. The relationships between the lattice parameters and the index change in a-, ~-, ~- and o - unstrained HxLi1-xTaQ3 solid solutions has been experimentally determined. The regularities of proton exchange in lithium tantalate crystals under different exchange and annealing conditions are studied and various specific features are explained.
We have examined the effects of annealing in air at 350 to 550 degree(s)C on proton-exchanged waveguides in lithium niobate crystals. By making a complex analysis of the processes that take place during annealing, which included structural, waveguiding-optical, IR-spectroscopical, and thermogravimetric measurements, we were able to find the conditions under which the LiNb3O8 phase is formed in H:LiNbO3 waveguides. A noticeable increase of LiNb3O8 begins at the moment the refractive index increment at the boundary of the initial proton-exchanged waveguide reaches the value (Delta) ne equals 0.037. With further annealing, when the (Delta) ne on the surface of the plate also becomes equal to 0.037, there begins the evaporation of Li2O and intensive formation of LiNb3O8. The results presented enable one to understand why under certain conditions of annealing the optical losses in H:LiNbO3 waveguides become greater, and to optimize the conditions of such annealing to produce high-quality waveguides.
A new method has been applied to form CduZn1-uSe waveguides -- ion exchange in the melts of salts. The regularities and specific features of ion exchange processes Cd2+ yields Zn2+ in ZnSe powder and single crystal plates have been studied. CduZn1-uSe solid solution obeys the model of regular solution. Temperature dependencies of equilibrium constant and interaction energy of strained and unstrained CduZn1-uSe solid solutions have been defined. We proposed the model taking into account the role of lattice misfit-induced stresses and dislocations in the ion exchange equilibrium. The depth profiles of elements and the refractive-index profiles in the ion exchanged Cd:ZnSE waveguides were analyzed and temperature dependencies of the self-diffusion coefficients of Cd2+ and Zn2+ ions were determined.
By using x-ray diffraction from different crystallographic planes, we have found the crystal structure deformations in proton-exchanged and titanium-indiffused lithium niobate waveguides. We have calculated the appearing mechanical stresses and the contribution of the photoelastic effect to the changes in refractive indices. It is shown that the waveguides have biaxial structure.
The kinetic model of proton exchange in LiNbO3, LiTaO3 crystals is proposed. The model is based on the formalism of relative composing units, which enables the user to find the expressions for gradients of chemical potentials of diffused particles in the sublatticies of sites and intersites. The diffusion equations for hydrogen, lithium, and vacancies in sites are obtained. Their solutions with some values of self-diffusion coefficients allow us, for the first time, to explain the step-like concentration profile of hydrogen, the upper limit of its concentration, the asymmetry of hydrogen and lithium depth-distributions, and some other specific features of proton exchange process.
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